Karim Amighi

Département de Pharmacothérapie et de pharmacie galénique - Unité de pharmacie galénique et de biopharmacie

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
 

His research interests are in the field of the formulation and in vitro/in vivo evaluation of advanced drug delivery systems for oral, parenteral, pulmonary, and nasal routes of administration. His research programme on lung drug delivery ranges from in vitro evaluation, through to evaluation of new excipients and/or devices, particle engineering and production using novel processes, and aerosol formulation, to in vivo scintigraphy imaging of lung deposition, local and systemic drug bioavailability, and clinical outcomes.

He has been responsible for more than 50 competitive research projects financed by regional funds or by national and international pharmaceuticals companies (budget > 15M €). He has initiated recently the launch of a new spin-off company (InhaTarget Therapeutics) in lung cancer targeted therapy field, and the marketing of a new inhalation product for the treatment of COPD.

Selected publications

Articles dans des revues avec comité de lecture

2022

Inhaled dry powder cisplatin increases antitumour response to anti-PD1 in a murine lung cancer model

Optimization of Long-Acting Bronchodilator Dose Ratios Using Isolated Guinea Pig Tracheal Rings for Synergistic Combination Therapy in Asthma and COPD

2021

Development of Neutralizing Multimeric Nanobody Constructs Directed against IL-13: From Immunization to Lead Optimization

IL-13 is a pleiotropic cytokine mainly secreted by Th2 cells. It reacts with many different types of cells involved in allergy, inflammation, and fibrosis, e.g., mastocytes, B cells, and fibroblasts. The role of IL-13 in conditions involving one or several of these phenotypes has therefore been extensively investigated. The inhibition of this cytokine in animal models for various pathologies yielded highly promising results. However, most human trials relying on anti-IL-13 conventional mAbs have failed to achieve a significant improvement of the envisaged disorders. Where some studies might have suffered from several weaknesses, the strategies themselves, such as targeting only IL-13 using conventional mAbs or employing a systemic administration, could be questioned. Nanobodies are recombinant Ag-binding fragments derived from the variable part of H chain-only Abs occurring in Camelidae. Thanks to their single-domain structure, small size (≈15 kDa), good stability, and solubility, they can be engineered into multispecific constructs for combined therapies or for use in new strategies such as formulations for local administration, e.g., pulmonary administration. In this study, we describe the generation of 38 nanobodies that can be subdivided into five CDR3 families. Nine nanobodies were found to have a good affinity profile (KD = 1-200 nM), but none were able to strongly inhibit IL-13 biological activity in vitro (IC50 > 50 µM: HEK-Blue IL-13/IL-4 cells). Multimeric constructs were therefore designed from these inhibitors and resulted in an up to 36-fold improvement in affinity and up to 300-fold enhancement of the biological activity while conserving a high specificity toward IL-13.

A Design of Experiment Approach to Optimize Spray-Dried Powders Containing Pseudomonas aeruginosa Podoviridae and Myoviridae Bacteriophages

In the present study, we evaluated the effect of spray-drying formulations and operating parameters of a laboratory-scale spray-dryer on the characteristics of spray-dried powders containing two Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteriophages exhibiting different morphotypes: a podovirus (LUZ19) and a myovirus (14-1). We optimized the production process for bacteriophage-loaded powders, with an emphasis on long-term storage under ICH (international conference on harmonization) conditions. D-trehalose-/L-isoleucine-containing bacteriophage mixtures were spray-dried from aqueous solutions using a Büchi Mini Spray-dryer B-290 (Flawil, Switzerland). A response surface methodology was used for the optimization of the spray-drying process, with the following as-evaluated parameters: Inlet temperature, spray gas flow rate, and the D-trehalose/L-isoleucine ratio. The dried powders were characterized in terms of yield, residual moisture content, and bacteriophage lytic activity. L-isoleucine has demonstrated a positive impact on the activity of LUZ19, but a negative impact on 14-1. We observed a negligible impact of the inlet temperature and a positive correlation of the spray gas flow rate with bacteriophage activity. After optimization, we were able to obtain dry powder preparations of both bacteriophages, which were stable for a minimum of one year under different ICH storage conditions (up to and including 40 °C and 75% relative humidity).

Preclinical tolerance evaluation of the addition of a cisplatin-based dry powder for inhalation to the conventional carboplatin-paclitaxel doublet for treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

Despite the advances in targeted therapies and immunotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients, the intravenous administration of carboplatin (CARB) and paclitaxel (PTX) in well-spaced cycles is widely indicated for the treatment of NSCLC from stage II to stage IV. Our strategy was to add a controlled-release cisplatin-based dry-powder for inhalation (CIS-DPI-ET) to the conventional CARB-PTX-IV doublet, administered during the treatment off-cycles to intensify the therapeutic response while avoiding the impairment of pulmonary, renal and haematological tolerance of these combinations. The co-administration of CIS-DPI-ET (0.5 mg/kg) and CARB-PTX-IV (17-10 mg/kg) the same day showed a higher proportion of neutrophils in BALF (35 ± 7% vs 1.3 ± 0.8%), with earlier regenerative anaemia than with CARB-PTX-IV alone. A first strategy of CARB-PTX-IV dose reduction by 25% also induced neutrophil recruitment, but in a lower proportion than with the first combination (20 ± 6% vs 0.3 ± 0.3%) and avoiding regenerative anaemia. A second strategy of delaying CIS-DPI-ET and CARB-PTX-IV administrations by 24 h avoided both the recruitment of neutrophils in BALF and regenerative anaemia. Moreover, all these groups showed higher cytotoxicity (LDH activity, protein content) with no higher renal toxicities. These two strategies seem interesting to be assessed in terms of antitumor efficacy in mice.

The combination of an innovative dry powder for inhalation and a standard cisplatin-based chemotherapy in view of therapeutic intensification against lung tumours

Cisplatin is one of the most commonly used chemotherapy in lung cancer despite its high nephrotoxicity leading to an administration only every 3-4 weeks. This study is the first report of a preclinical investigation of therapeutic intensification combining a cisplatin dry powder for inhalation (CIS-DPI) with an intravenous (iv) cisplatin-based treatment. CIS-DPI with 50% cisplatin content (CIS-DPI-50) was developed using lipid excipients through scalable processes (high-speed and high-pressure homogenization and spray-drying). CIS-DPI-50 showed good aerodynamic performance (fine particle fraction of ~ 55% and a mass median aerodynamic particle size of ~ 2 µm) and a seven-fold increase and decrease in Cmax in the lungs and in plasma, respectively, in comparison with an iv cisplatin solution (CIS-iv) in healthy mice. Finally, the addition of CIS-DPI-50 to the standard cisplatin/paclitaxel iv doublet increased the response rate (67% vs 50%), decreased the tumour growth and prolonged the median survival (31 vs 21 days), compared to the iv doublet in the M109 lung carcinoma model tending to demonstrate a therapeutic intensification of cisplatin.

Drug-related problems and risk factors related to unplanned hospital readmission among cancer patients in Belgium

Introduction: There are about 60,000 diagnoses of cancer per year in Belgium. After hospital care, about 12-13% of cancer patients are readmitted within 30 days after discharge. These readmissions are partly related to drug-related problems (DRP), such as interactions or adverse drug effects (ADE). Objectives: The aim of this study is to quantify and to classify DRP readmissions within 30 days for cancer patients and to highlight risk factors potentially correlated to readmissions. Methods: This study is a 6-month observational retrospective study in two care facilities in Brussels: an academic general hospital and an academic oncology center. Patients readmitted within 30 days after their last hospital care for a potential DRP were included. Patient files were evaluated with an intermediate medication review that included interactions analysis (Lexicomp®). The probability of DRP readmission was assessed using the World Health Organization's Uppsala Monitoring Centre (WHO-UMC) system. Results: The final population included 299 patients; among them, 123 (41.1%) were readmitted due to DRP (certain DRP (4.9%), probable DRP (49.6%), and possible DRP (45.5%)). Risks factors linked to these DRP were a low Charlson Comorbidity Index, polypharmacy, the kind of hospital, and some chemotherapies (platinum preparations). Among all readmitted patients, the D-type interactions were the most common (44.8%), which suggest a possible therapy modification. However, around 10% of interactions were X-type (drug combination to avoid). Conclusion: Almost 10% of patient readmitted within 30 days were potentially related to a DRP, most of them from adverse drug effects. Four risk factors (low Charlson Comorbidity Index, polypharmacy, the hospital, and some chemotherapies) were highlighted to prevent these readmissions.

Pulmonary and renal tolerance of cisplatin-based regimens combining intravenous and endotracheal routes for lung cancer treatment in mice

Despite recent advances, platinum-based chemotherapy (partially composed of cisplatin, CIS) remains the backbone of non-small-cell lung cancer treatment. As CIS presents a cumulative and dose-limiting nephrotoxicity, it is currently administered with an interruption phase of 3-4 weeks between treatment cycles. During these periods, the patient recovers from the treatment side effects but so does the tumour. Our strategy is to increase the treatment frequency by delivering a cisplatin controlled-release dry powder for inhalation (CIS-DPI) formulation during these off-cycles to expose the tumour environment for longer to CIS, increasing its effectiveness. This is promising as long as the pulmonary and renal toxicities remain acceptable. The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the pulmonary and renal tolerance of CIS-DPI (three times per cycle) and CIS using the intravenous (IV) route (CIS-IV) (one time per cycle) as monotherapies and to optimize their combination in terms of dose and schedule. At the maximum tolerated dose (MTD), combining CIS-DPI and CIS-IV impaired the pulmonary and the renal tolerance. Therefore, pulmonary tolerance was improved when the CIS-IV dose was decreased by 25% (to 1.5 mg/kg) while maintaining the MTD for CIS-DPI. In addition to this dose adjustment, a delay of 24 h between CIS-DPI and CIS-IV administrations limited the acute kidney injury.

Development of mAb-loaded 3D-printed (FDM) implantable devices based on PLGA

Development of mAb-loaded 3D-printed (FDM) implantable devices based on PLGA

The main objective of this work was to explore the feasibility to print monoclonal antibody (mAb)-loaded implantable systems using fused-deposition modelling (FDM) to build complex dosage form designs. Indeed, to our knowledge, this work is the first investigation of mAb-loaded devices using FDM. To make this possible, different steps were developed and optimized. A mAb solution was stabilized using trehalose (TRE), sucrose (SUC), hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD), sorbitol or inulin (INU) in order to be spray dried (SD). Printable filaments were then made of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) and mAb powder (15% w/w) using hot melt extrusion (HME). The FDM process was optimized to print these filaments without altering the mAb stability. TRE was selected and associated to L-leucine (LEU) to increase the mAb stability. The stability was then evaluated considering high and low molecular weight species levels. The mAb-based devices were well-stabilized with the selected excipients during both the HME and the FDM processes. The 3D-printed devices showed sustained-release profiles with a low burst effect. The mAb-binding capacity was preserved up to 70% following the whole fabrication process. These promising results demonstrate that FDM could be used to produce mAb-loaded devices with good stability, affinity and sustained-release profiles of the mAb.

2020

Inhaled cytotoxic chemotherapy: clinical challenges, recent developments, and future prospects

Introduction: Since 1968, inhaled chemotherapy has been evaluated and has shown promising results up to phase II but has not yet reached the market. This is due to technological and clinical challenges that require to be overcome with the aim of optimizing the efficacy and the tolerance of drug to re-open new developments in this field. Moreover, recent changes in the therapeutic standard of care for treating the patient with lung cancer also open new opportunities to combine inhaled chemotherapy with standard treatments. Areas covered: Clinical and technological concerns are highlighted from the reported clinical trials made with inhaled cytotoxic chemotherapies. This work then focuses on new pharmaceutical developments using dry powder inhalers as inhalation devices and on formulation strategies based on controlled drug release and with sustained lung retention or based on nanomedicine. Finally, new clinical strategies are described in regard to the impact of the immunotherapy on the patient's standard of care. Expert opinion: The choice of the drug, inhalation device, and formulation strategy as well as the position of inhaled chemotherapy in the patient's clinical care are crucial factors in optimizing local tolerance and efficacy as well as in its scalability and applicability in clinical practice.

Deciphering the chemical instability of sphaeropsidin A under physiological conditions-degradation studies and structural elucidation of the major metabolite

The fungal metabolite sphaeropsidin A (SphA) has been recognised for its promising cytotoxicity, particularly towards apoptosis- and multidrug-resistant cancers. Owing to its intriguing activity, the development of SphA as a potential anticancer agent has been pursued. However, this endeavour is compromised since SphA exhibits poor physicochemical stability under physiological conditions. Herein, SphA's instability in biological media was explored utilizing LC-MS. Notably, the degradation tendency was found to be markedly enhanced in the presence of amino acids in the cell medium utilized. Furthermore, the study investigated the presence of degradation adducts, including the identification, isolation and structural elucidation of a major degradation metabolite, (4R)-4,4′,4′-trimethyl-3′-oxo-4-vinyl-4′,5′,6′,7′-tetrahydro-3′H-spiro[cyclohexane-1,1′-isobenzofuran]-2-ene-2-carboxylic acid. Considering the reduced cytotoxic potency of aged SphA solutions, as well as that of the isolated degradation metabolite, the reported antiproliferative activity has been attributed primarily to the parent compound (SphA) and not its degradation species. The fact that SphA continues to exhibit remarkable bioactivity, despite being susceptible to degradation, motivates future research efforts to address the challenges associated with this instability impediment.

2019

Development and evaluation of budesonide-based modified-release liquid oral dosage forms

Modified-release oral drug delivery dosage forms are widely used in the pharmaceutical field to overcome all the potential issues imposed by the physiological variabilities of the gastrointestinal tract as well as to maintain drug concentrations within the therapeutic window. In the market, they are available only as solid dosage forms such as capsules or tablets. The development of a liquid oral dosage form with modified-release properties has been keenly awaited. This form could increase the compliance of patients with a swallowing impairment (i.e. paediatric, older or critically ill patients) and, consequently, the efficacy of the therapeutic treatment. In this study, budesonide was used as a model drug to develop a modified-release liquid oral dosage form (i.e. colonic-release, sustained-release). For this purpose, multi-layered particles were obtained, starting from small microcrystalline cellulose neutral cores (Cellets® with a mean diameter lower than 500 μm), in a lab-scale fluid-bed coater. Poly(meth)acrylate polymers commonly available under the trade name of Eudragit®, such as S100, RS PO, RL100 and E100, were used to get defined drug release profiles. They were also used to guarantee the stability of the reconstituted liquid syrup during 2 weeks of storage at room temperature.

The position of inhaled chemotherapy in the care of patients with lung tumours: clinical feasibility and indications according to recent pharmaceutical progresses

Despite new treatment modalities, including targeted therapies and checkpoint inhibitors, cytotoxic chemotherapy remains central in the care of patients with lung tumors. Use of the pulmonary route to deliver chemotherapy has been proved to be feasible and safe in phase I, Ib/IIa and II trials for lung tumors, with the administration of drug doses to the lungs without prior distribution in the organism. The severe systemic toxicities commonly observed with conventional systemic chemotherapy are consequently reduced. However, development has failed in phase II at best. This review first focuses on the causes of failure of inhaled chemotherapy. It then presents new promising technologies able to take up the current challenges. These technologies include the use of a dry powder inhaler or a smart nebulizer with advanced drug formulations such as controlled-release formulations and nanomedicine. Finally, the potential position of inhaled chemotherapy in patient care is discussed and some indications are proposed based on the literature.

Development of PLGA microparticles with high immunoglobulin G-loaded levels and sustained-release properties obtained by spray-drying a water-in-oil emulsion

In this study, the possibility of producing highly antibody-loaded microparticles with sustained-release properties was evaluated. Polyclonal immunoglobulin G (IgG) was used as a model of antibody and its encapsulation into poly(lactide-co-glycolide) acid (PLGA) microparticles was performed by spray-drying a water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion. It was demonstrated that the use of the Resomer® RG505 PLGA allowed an IgG loading of 20% w/w with an encapsulation efficiency higher than 85%. The produced microparticles were characterized by a mean diameter lower than 10 µm. The burst effect was shown to reach a maximal value of 40%. IgG stability after encapsulation was also assessed. The use of this single PLGA provided a lag time of 3 months which dramatically slowed down the release rate after the initial release of the encapsulated IgG. Using blends of PLGA characterized by different inherent viscosities allowed decreasing the lag time and modulating the dissolution profile of the IgG from the spray-dried microparticles. Therefore, spray-drying a water-in-oil emulsion appeared to be a promising strategy to produce highly antibody-loaded microparticles characterized by sustained-release properties.

How to characterize a nasal product. The state of the art of in vitro and ex vivo specific methods

Nasal delivery offers many benefits over other conventional routes of delivery (e.g. oral or intravenous administration). Benefits include, among others, a fast onset of action, non-invasiveness and direct access to the central nervous system. The nasal cavity is not only limited to local application (e.g. rhinosinusitis) but can also provide direct access to other sites in the body (e.g. the central nervous system or systemic circulation). However, both the anatomy and the physiology of the nose impose their own limitations, such as a small volume for delivery or rapid mucociliary clearance. To meet nasal-specific criteria, the formulator has to complete a plethora of tests, in vitro and ex vivo, to assess the efficacy and tolerance of a new drug-delivery system. Moreover, depending on the desired therapeutic effect, the delivery of the drug should target a specific pathway that could potentially be achieved through a modified release of this drug. Therefore, this review focuses on specific techniques that should be performed when a nasal formulation is developed. The review covers both the tests recommended by regulatory agencies (e.g. the Food and Drug Administration) and other complementary experiments frequently performed in the field.

Adaptation and validation of PCNE drug-related problem classification v6.2 in French-speaking Belgian community pharmacies.

Background Many tools exist to document drug-related problems (DRP), such as the Pharmaceutical Care Network Europe (PCNE) classification. However, none have been adapted and published for French-speaking Belgian community pharmacies. Settings French-speaking Belgian Community pharmacies. Objective The objective was to translate and adapt the PCNE V6.2 classification to the Belgian pharmacy practice and legal setting and to assess the content validity, daily use and inter-rater reliability of this classification. Main Outcome Measure Validation of the French-language adapted PCNE v6.2 classification in Belgium. Method The first step translated and adapted the PCNE V6.2 classification to the Belgian setting. Thereafter academic and community pharmacists evaluated the content validity, which involved six criteria and concerned the instruction manual (clarity, helpfulness) and the registration form (representativeness, logical design, completeness and uniqueness). The next step was the DRP collection, using the PCNE tool daily. Compliance with the instructions and the time needed to solve a DRP were evaluated. Finally, the inter-rater reliability was evaluated by comparing DRP codings done by pharmacist volunteers. Results The classification was translated into French and adapted by adding 16 items. The classification showed a high content validity for the academics and the community pharmacists. A total of 109 DRP forms were coded, with an average resolution time of 5 min. Regarding the inter-rater reliability, 74 tool items out of the set of 83 showed high consistency in coding. Conclusion This study showed that the tool adaptation to a French-speaking Belgian context was reliable and has adequate validity for daily use.

2018

Impact of capsule type on aerodynamic performance of inhalation products: A case study using a formoterol-lactose binary or ternary blend

The aerodynamic performance of a dry powder for inhalation depends on the formulation and the dry powder inhaler (DPI). In the case of capsule-based DPIs, the capsule also plays a role in the powder aerosolisation and the dispersion of the micronized drug during the inhalation. This study evaluated the impact of gelatine capsules (Quali-G™ and Hard Gelatine Capsules for DPIs), cold-gelled hypromellose (HPMC) capsules (Quali-V®-I and Vcaps®) and thermal-gelled HPMC capsules (Vcaps®Plus) from Qualicaps® and Capsugel® respectively, on the delivered dose (DD), fine particle dose (FPD), and capsule retention for formoterol-lactose binary and ternary blends. This study used a low resistance Axahaler® DPI based on the RS01 design (Plastiape, Italy). Similar trends were observed with the different capsule types that packaged both dry powder formulations. The highest DD and FPD and the lowest formoterol capsule retention were observed with cold-gelled HPMC capsules such as Quali-V-I® and Vcaps®, without significant differences between these capsules (p > 0.05, one-way ANOVA with Newman-Keuls post-hoc test) for both dry powders. Therefore, the capsule composition and manufacturing process have an influence on aerodynamic performance. In addition, the ternary blend showed higher DDs and FPDs but also higher capsule retention in comparison to the binary blend.

Impact of capsule type on aerodynamic performance of inhalation products: A case study using a formoterol-lactose binary or ternary blend.

The aerodynamic performance of a dry powder for inhalation depends on the formulation and the dry powder inhaler (DPI). In the case of capsule-based DPIs, the capsule also plays a role in the powder aerosolisation and the dispersion of the micronized drug during the inhalation. This study evaluated the impact of gelatine capsules (Quali-G™ and Hard Gelatine Capsules for DPIs), cold-gelled hypromellose (HPMC) capsules (Quali-V®-I and Vcaps®) and thermal-gelled HPMC capsules (Vcaps®Plus) from Qualicaps® and Capsugel® respectively, on the delivered dose (DD), fine particle dose (FPD), and capsule retention for formoterol-lactose binary and ternary blends. This study used a low resistance Axahaler® DPI based on the RS01 design (Plastiape, Italy). Similar trends were observed with the different capsule types that packaged both dry powder formulations. The highest DD and FPD and the lowest formoterol capsule retention were observed with cold-gelled HPMC capsules such as Quali-V-I® and Vcaps®, without significant differences between these capsules (p > 0.05, one-way ANOVA with Newman-Keuls post-hoc test) for both dry powders. Therefore, the capsule composition and manufacturing process have an influence on aerodynamic performance. In addition, the ternary blend showed higher DDs and FPDs but also higher capsule retention in comparison to the binary blend.

Implementation study of an interprofessional medication adherence program for HIV patients in Switzerland: quantitative and qualitative implementation results

Background: An interprofessional medication adherence program (IMAP) for chronic patients was developed and successfully implemented in the community pharmacy of the Department of ambulatory care and community medicine (Lausanne, Switzerland). This study assesses the capacity of a physician and a nurse at the infectious diseases service of a public hospital and of community pharmacists in the Neuchâtel area (Switzerland) to implement the IMAP in their practice. Methods: Mixed method, prospective, observational study. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of the implementation process were conducted following the RE-AIM model (reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation and maintenance). Results: Implementation started in November 2014. One physician, one nurse, and five pharmacists agreed to participate. Healthcare professionals perceived the benefits of the program and were motivated to implement it in their practice (adoption). Seventeen patients were included in the program; 13 refused to participate. The inclusion of naïve HIV patients was easier than the inclusion of experienced patients with difficult psychosocial issues (reach). Pharmacists were engaged in reinforcing patient medication adherence in 25% of interviews (effectiveness). Key facilitators expressed by healthcare professionals were patient inclusion by the physician and the nurse instead of the pharmacist and the organisation of regular meetings between all stakeholders. In contrast, the encountered barriers were the lack of time and resources, the lack of team uptake, and the lack of adoption by senior managers (implementation). Interviewed patients were all satisfied with this new program, encouraging healthcare professionals to scale it up. Structural changes allowed the hospital and one pharmacy to enter the maintenance stage (maintenance). Conclusion: The research team and collaboration between all professionals involved played an important role in this implementation. However, the dissemination of such a program to a larger scale and for the long term requires financial and structural resources as well as transitional external support.

Implementation of an interprofessional medication adherence program for HIV patients: description of the process using the framework for the implementation of services in pharmacy

BACKGROUND: The community pharmacy center of the Department of Ambulatory Care and Community Medicine of the Policlinique Médicale Universitaire (PMU), Lausanne, Switzerland developed and implemented an interprofessional medication adherence program for chronic patients (IMAP). In 2014, a project was launched to implement the IMAP for HIV patients in a public non-academic hospital with the collaboration of community pharmacists in the Neuchâtel area (Switzerland). This article aims to describe the different implementation stages and strategies of the project. METHODS: A posteriori description of the implementation process, including the conceptualization strategies and stages (exploration, preparation, operation, sustainability) using the Framework for the Implementation of Services in Pharmacy (FISpH). RESULTS: In 2014, an attending infectious disease physician and a nurse at a public hospital (Neuchâtel, Switzerland) contacted the PMU to implement the IMAP in their setting in collaboration with community pharmacies. Five volunteer community pharmacies in Neuchâtel were trained to deliver the program. Three factors were found to be essential to the successful launch and progress of the implementation project: the experience of the community pharmacy center of the PMU with the IMAP, the involvement of the PMU research team, and collaboration with an external start up (SISPha) to train and support pharmacists. During the operation stage, the most important strategy developed was that of regular meetings between all stakeholders. These allowed healthcare professionals to discuss the implementation progress, to address each stakeholder's expectations, and to exchange experiences to facilitate interprofessional collaboration and program delivery. Structural changes allowed the formalization of the activities at the hospital and in a community pharmacy. This formalization was identified as the transition step between the operation and the sustainability stages. CONCLUSIONS: The transfer of the IMAP for HIV patients to a non-academic setting and its implementation are feasible. However, implementation of a new model of pharmacy service such as IMAP implies a deep change in practice. A transitional external support and the allocation of sufficient resources to carry out the IMAP are essential for its long-term sustainability.

Chitosan-coated liposome dry-powder formulations loaded with ghrelin for nose-to-brain delivery

The nose-to-brain delivery of ghrelin loaded in liposomes is a promising approach for the management of cachexia. It could limit the plasmatic degradation of ghrelin and provide direct access to the brain, where ghrelin's specific receptors are located. Anionic liposomes coated with chitosan in either a liquid or a dry-powder formulation were compared. The powder formulation showed stronger adhesion to mucins (89 ± 4% vs 61 ± 4%), higher ghrelin entrapment efficiency (64 ± 2% vs 55 ± 4%), higher enzymatic protection against trypsin (26 ± 2% vs 20 ± 3%) and lower ghrelin storage degradation at 25 °C (2.67 ± 1.1% vs 95.64 ± 0.85% after 4 weeks). The powder formulation was also placed in unit-dose system devices that were able to generate an appropriate aerosol characterized by a Dv50 of 38 ± 6 µm, a limited percentage of particles smaller than 10 µm of 4 ± 1% and a reproducible mass delivery (CV: 1.49%). In addition, the device was able to deposit a large amount of powder (52.04% w/w) in the olfactory zone of a 3D-printed nasal cast. The evaluated combination of the powder formulation and the device could provide a promising treatment for cachexia.

Evaluation of compliance with isotretinoin PPP recommendations and exploration of reasons for non-compliance: Survey among French-speaking health care professionals and patients in Belgium

Purpose: To evaluate awareness of and compliance in Belgium by French-speaking health care professionals and patients with the isotretinoin safety recommendations regarding its teratogenic risk. Method: Survey using online questionnaires, delivered from December 2014 to March 2015 for patients, pharmacists, dermatologists, and GPs and delivered again from September 2015 to October 2015 for GPs. Results: Questionnaires were completed by 24 dermatologists, 24 GPs, 58 pharmacists, and 33 female patients. The pregnancy prevention programme was poorly known by health care professionals (23.6%) and patients (15.2%). Health care professionals informed women of childbearing age in depth about the teratogenic risk (98.3% of pharmacists and 100.0% of GPs and dermatologists) and the importance of an effective contraceptive method (87.9% and 100.0%, respectively). Patients were less informed about the pregnancy test (25.9% and 14.6%) and the need to use a second contraceptive method (29.3% and 27.1%). The low compliance with the last 2 recommendations was due to a lack of adoption by health care professionals regarding the need for these recommendations if female patients have an effective contraceptive method and the pregnancy risk is discussed in detail with them. Conclusion: The effectiveness of the pregnancy prevention programme recommendations should be reconsidered by an expert committee. Justifications should be added to effective recommendations to increase their adoption by health care professionals and patients.

La chimiothérapie inhalée - partie 1 : concept et challenges technologiques actuels.

Despite severe adverse effects, chemotherapy is still widely used in the treatment of lung tumors, including primary lung tumors and metastases. In order to reduce the risk of harm and to intensify treatment responses, several strategies have been described recently. These include the use of nanomedicine-based chemotherapies and pulmonary drug delivery. However, to treat lung tumors, inhalation cannot be effective and safe without an adaptation of current inhalation techniques, i.e. inhalation devices and drug formulations. This can be very challenging. This review presents recent preclinical developments that could address the limitations observed with aerosolized chemotherapy. The solutions involve the use of dry powder inhalers and advanced drug formulations, such as controlled and sustained release formulations and nanomedicine-based formulations.

La chimiothérapie inhalée - partie 2 : clinique et applications potentielles.

Lung tumours have a high incidence and cause many deaths worldwide. Despite progresses in treatment with targeted therapies and immunotherapies, the global 5-year survival rate remains low. In this context, inhaled chemotherapy could provide a means to intensify current therapeutic modalities. This review is based on clinical studies of inhaled chemotherapy against lung tumours. The advantages of this approach in terms of pharmacokinetic ratio and therapeutic index are presented as well as the limitations including contraindications and pulmonary side effects. Moreover, the challenges linked to technical aspects around administration are identified (inhalation device and facilities to limit aerosol propagation and exposure of healthcare professionals). The current developments proposed to overcome these challenges are described briefly. Also discussed are the potential applications for the distribution of the inhaled anticancer drug into tumour-bearing respiratory tracts and finally the potential indications for current therapeutic modalities.

New Folate-Grafted Chitosan Derivative To Improve Delivery of Paclitaxel-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Lung Tumor Therapy by Inhalation.

Inhaled chemotherapy for the treatment of lung tumors requires that drug delivery systems improve selectivity for cancer cells and tumor penetration and allow sufficient lung residence. To this end, we developed solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) with modified surface properties. We successfully synthesized a new folate-grafted copolymer of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and chitosan, F-PEG-HTCC, with a PEG-graft ratio of 7% and a molecular weight range of 211-250 kDa. F-PEG-HTCC-coated, paclitaxel-loaded SLN were prepared with an encapsulation efficiency, mean diameter, and zeta potential of about 100%, 250 nm, and +32 mV, respectively. The coated SLN entered folate receptor (FR)-expressing HeLa and M109-HiFR cells in vitro and M109 tumors in vivo after pulmonary delivery. The coated SLN significantly decreased the in vitro half-maximum inhibitory concentrations of paclitaxel in M109-HiFR cells (60 vs 340 nM, respectively). We demonstrated that FR was involved in these improvements, especially in M109-HiFR cells. After pulmonary delivery in vivo, the coated SLN had a favorable pharmacokinetic profile, with pulmonary exposure to paclitaxel prolonged to up to 6 h and limited systemic distribution. Our preclinical findings therefore demonstrated the positive impact of the coated SLN on the delivery of paclitaxel by inhalation.

Assessment of medication adherence and responsible use of isotretinoin and contraception through belgian community pharmacies by using pharmacy refill data

Purpose: The aims of the study were to evaluate medication adherence and the influencing factors for isotretinoin and contraception (oral, patches, and rings) and to evaluate the concomitant use of contraception and isotretinoin. Methods: Reimbursed prescription data from January 2012 to August 2015 of all patients in Belgium were received from Pharmanet-National Institute for Health and Disability Insurance. Medication adherence was measured according to the medication possession ratio. The influence of gender and age was analyzed using the Mann-Whitney test and the Spearman coefficient correlation. The independence between adherence to contraception and adherence to isotretinoin was analyzed using the Pearson chi-square test of independence. Persistence was defined as the number of days between initiation and presumed end of treatment. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to plot the medication persistence curves, and the log-rank test was used to compare the curves. The concomitant use of contraception and isotretinoin was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Results: The medication possession ratio was ≥0.8 for 46.1% of patients receiving isotretinoin and for 74.0% of women using contraception. For isotretinoin, this percentage decreased as the number of attempts increased (29.8% for the second attempt and 19.8% for more than two attempts). Men seemed more adherent than women, and a weak negative correlation between adherence and age was observed. The adherence data of isotretinoin and contraception were independent. The median persistence for isotretinoin treatment was 139 days (interquartile range 71-209) and was higher for men. Among women between 12 and 21 years old taking isotretinoin, 63.8% received at least one contraceptive prescription. However, 15.7% of women taking isotretinoin adhered to the use of contraception 1 month before, during, and 1 month after treatment. Conclusion: Medication adherence to isotretinoin and contraception and compliance with the isotretinoin safety recommendation could be improved. Health service interventions, using pharmacy refill data, should be delivered to ensure patient safety and strict adherence to contraception when under isotretinoin treatment.

2017

Development of coated liposomes loaded with ghrelin for nose-to-brain delivery for the treatment of cachexia

The aim of the present study was to develop a ghrelin-containing formulation based on liposomes coated with chitosan intended for nose-brain delivery for the treatment of cachexia. Among the three types of liposomes developed, anionic liposomes provided the best results in terms of encapsulation efficiency (56%) and enzymatic protection against trypsin (20.6% vs 0% for ghrelin alone) and carboxylesterase (81.6% vs 17.2% for ghrelin alone). Ghrelin presented both electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions with the anionic lipid bilayer, as demonstrated by isothermal titration calorimetry. Then, anionic liposomes were coated with N-(2-hydroxy)propyl-3-trimethyl ammonium chitosan chloride. The coating involved a size increment from 146.9±2.7 to 194±6.1 nm, for uncoated and coated liposomes, respectively. The ζ-potential was similarly increased from -0.3±1.2 mV to 6±0.4 mV before and after coating, respectively. Chitosan provided mucoadhesion, with an increase in mucin adsorption of 22.9%. Enhancement of permeation through the Calu3 epithelial monolayer was also observed with 10.8% of ghrelin recovered in the basal compartment in comparison to 0% for ghrelin alone. Finally, aerosols generated from two nasal devices (VP3 and SP270) intended for aqueous dispersion were characterized with either coated or uncoated liposomes. Contrarily to the SP270 device, VP3 device showed minor changes between coated and uncoated liposome aerosols, as shown by their median volume diameters of 38.4±5.76 and 37.6±5.74 µm, respectively. Overall, the results obtained in this study show that the developed formulation delivered by the VP3 device can be considered as a potential candidate for nose-brain delivery of ghrelin.

Proposed algorithm for healthcare professionals based on product characteristics and in vitro performances in different use conditions using formoterol-based marketed products for inhalation.

Healthcare professionals require an easy algorithm for selecting the most appropriate inhalation product for each patient at the beginning of a treatment. As a case study, we selected five marketed formoterol products: Foradil® and Formagal®, capsule-based dry powder inhalers (DPIs), Novolizer® Formoterol and Oxis®, reservoir-based DPIs and Formoair®, a pressurized metered dose inhaler. We generated an algorithm based on device properties (i.e. device handling, feedback and remaining dose/end of product indication) and in vitro aerodynamic performances (i) along the product use life in optimal conditions, (ii) at different airflows and (iii) after exposing pre-loaded doses to 40 °C and 75% relative humidity for 4 h. Based on these results, an algorithm was built where Formoair and Formagal can be proposed when there is high risk of humidity and for patients presenting suboptimal or optimal airflows. When no risk of humidity is present, Formoair, Foradil, Formagal and Novolizer Formoterol equipped with a trigger valve could be proposed for patients presenting suboptimal airflows. When no risk of humidity is present and for patients presenting optimal airflow, all products, including Oxis, could be proposed. Ultimately, the optimal inhalation product will be selected after checking the patient's preference and capacity for correct device handling and inhalation technique.

Sensitization of glioblastoma tumor micro-environment to chemo- and immunotherapy by Galectin-1 intranasal knock-down strategy

In this study, we evaluated the consequences of reducing Galectin-1 (Gal-1) in the tumor micro-environment (TME) of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), via nose-to-brain transport. Gal-1 is overexpressed in GBM and drives chemo- and immunotherapy resistance. To promote nose-to-brain transport, we designed siRNA targeting Gal-1 (siGal-1) loaded chitosan nanoparticles that silence Gal-1 in the TME. Intranasal siGal-1 delivery induces a remarkable switch in the TME composition, with reduced myeloid suppressor cells and regulatory T cells, and increased CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Gal-1 knock-down reduces macrophages' polarization switch from M1 (pro-inflammatory) to M2 (anti-inflammatory) during GBM progression. These changes are accompanied by normalization of the tumor vasculature and increased survival for tumor bearing mice. The combination of siGal-1 treatment with temozolomide or immunotherapy (dendritic cell vaccination and PD-1 blocking) displays synergistic effects, increasing the survival of tumor bearing mice. Moreover, we could confirm the role of Gal-1 on lymphocytes in GBM patients by matching the Gal-1 expression and their T cell signatures. These findings indicate that intranasal siGal-1 nanoparticle delivery could be a valuable adjuvant treatment to increase the efficiency of immune-checkpoint blockade and chemotherapy.

Triple-stimuli responsive polymers with fine tuneable magnetic responses

The formation of multi-stimuli responsive polymers exhibiting magnetic, pH and light sensitivity is reported. After quaternization of tertiary amines along poly(2-(N,N-dimethylamino) ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) with varied alkyl and benzyl halides, a series of tetrahalogenoferrate(iii) salts were obtained by anion metathesis, conferring tailored and high magnetic responses. Experimental and theoretical Raman analyses allowed one to distinguish between the different magnetic anions present in the materials. This strategy was then implemented to the formation of multi-responsive compounds, by using random copolymers that incorporate various amounts of DMAEMA (∼40, 65 and 80%) and diazobenzene units. Partial or total quaternization of the dimethylamino end groups (10, 50 and 100%) followed by magnetic anion exchange afforded the magnetic-responsive copolymers, as evidenced by their magnetic susceptibility. Free ternary amino groups and diazobenzene moieties further brought pH and light sensitivity, giving rise to triple-stimuli responsive materials. This simple and rapid procedure offers the opportunity to fine tune the magnetic properties of remotely controlled smart devices.

Optimization and Scaling-Up of ITZ-based Dry Powders for Inhalation

Dry powders for inhalation with amorphous itraconazole (ITZ) dispersed in a hydrophilic matrix were previously obtained by the spray-drying technique. This gave interesting aerodynamic and dissolution characteristics leading to promising lung pharmacokinetic and prophylaxis efficacy in a preclinical model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. The spray-drying allows dry powder to be obtained in a one-step process; nonetheless, the scale-up still presents a challenge in maintaining the main particle characteristics. This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of obtaining similar powder characteristics from concentrated solutions using laboratory-scale and pilot-scale spray dryer equipment. ITZ was solubilized in a solvent mixture (ethanol/ethyl acetate/water mixture 40:40:20 v/v/v) in mannitol solutions or suspensions. These mixtures were spray dried at laboratory scale to produce a solid dispersion for inhalation (SDI) containing amorphous ITZ dispersed in a mannitol matrix. A solution of 35% (So1) w/w ITZ was chosen to evaluate the scale-up process. This formulation was chosen for its high yield (60%), its amorphous ITZ content (100%), its good aerodynamic behavior (fine particle fraction - FPF = 33± 2%) and its increased dissolution profile compared to bulk ITZ. The scale-up process showed pilot-scale dry powders with a higher yield than lab-scale dry powders and similar aerodynamic performance and equivalent dissolution profiles. Moreover, all SDIs displayed improved release kinetics in comparison with bulk ITZ. Despite the slight differences between lab- and pilot-scale SDIs, this study shows that the scaling-up process allowed interesting ITZ-based SDIs to be obtained, in order to achieve pilot-scale production.

Platinum pharmacokinetics in mice following inhalation of cisplatin dry powders with different release and lung retention properties

Pharmacokinetics of cisplatin administered by the pulmonary route were established in mice using dry powders inhaler (DPI) formulations showing immediate (F1) and controlled release (CR, solid lipid microparticles) in vitro, without (F2) or with PEGylated excipients (F3, F4). Formulation administration was realized using dry powder blends (correspondingly named thereafter F1B to F4B) able to reproducibly deliver particles in vivo using a DP-4M Dry Powder Insufflator™. Their platinum pharmacokinetics were established over 48 h in lungs, total blood and non-target organs vs. IV and endotracheal nebulization (EN). EN and F1B were rapidly distributed from the lungs (t1/2 i 2.6 and 5.0 min). F2B was eliminated in ∼1 h (t1/2 i 9.0 min). F3B lung retention was sustained for ∼7 h (t1/2 i 59.9 min), increasing lung AUC 11-, 4- and 3-fold vs. IV, F1B and F2B. Total blood tmax were higher and AUC and Cmax lower using the pulmonary route vs. IV. Kidney Cmax was reduced 6-, 2- and 3-fold for F1B, F2B and F3B. AUC in kidneys were 2- to 3-fold lower for F1B and F2B vs. IV but comparable for IV vs. F3B, probably because of kidney saturation. PEGylated solid lipid microparticles provided cisplatin particles with interesting lung retention and CR properties.

2016

Development and evaluation of insulin-loaded cationic solid lipid nanoparticles for oral delivery

Cationic solid lipid nanoparticles (cSLN) loaded with insulin for oral delivery were prepared by the so-called water-in-oil-in-water double emulsion technique. The lipid matrix was composed of glyceryl palmitostearate and 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane as a cationic lipid. Depending on the formulation, 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[amino(polyethylene glycol)-2000] was incorporated to decrease the adsorption of insulin onto the surface of the nanoparticles. This aimed to achieve a positive zeta potential to obtain bioadhesion properties. The cSLN were characterized by a Z-average lower than 300 nm and by a zeta potential higher than 33 mV. The loading efficiency was ranged between 30% and 42%. It was shown that all the nanoparticles developed were able to fix solubilized mucin, which was used to evaluate bioadhesion properties. The cSLN also allowed the encapsulated insulin to be protected from the enzymatic activity of both pepsin and trypsin. The dissolution profiles of the insulin from the cSLN were characterized by a biphasic release. There was an initial burst release in the first 30 min, followed by a sustained release of the peptide. Moreover, compared to free insulin in solution, the cSLN developed significantly increased the passage of the encapsulated insulin through a monolayer of co-cultured Caco-2/HT29 cells. This went from 1.16 ± 0.27% to 2.89 ± 0.39% after 4 h, for the free insulin and the cSLN respectively.

Fréquence et nature des problems liés aux corticosteroïdes dans les officines publiques de Belgique.

Aims are: 1] Identify causes of Drug Related Problems (DRPs), interventions performed by pharmacists and results of corticosteroid- related problems and 2] distinguish between problems related to inhaled and general corticosteroids. Methods During 5 days of their internship, 534 final year students of pharmaceutical sciences in six Belgian universities collected DRPs encountered in community pharmacies, as well as related interventions performed by pharmacists and the result of the intervention. The DRPs' electronic registration was done through an adapted tool for Belgium based on the classification of Pharmaceutical Care Network Europe [PCNE- v 6.2]. Findings The frequency of DRPs is 24,8%. 766 DRPs (4,8%) related to corticosteroids, of which 351 were inhaled corticosteroids. The most common causes of corticosteroid-related problems (53- 59%) were technical causes. The most represented category of clinical causes was the inappropriate choice of drug [33-41%]. Pharmacists' intervention was similar for inhaled and general corticosteroids. Pharmacists intervened orally with patients in 38-40% of total interventions, and in writing in 16% of interventions. Pharmacists did not react in 16% of corticosteroid-related problems. 81-83% of PLMS were resolved partially or completely. Conclusion In conclusion, DRPs detected in community pharmacies related to corticosteroid are infrequent (4,8% of DRPs) but 82% of detected problems have been resolved. Furthermore, the study shows the importance for the Belgian health system to introduce an official DRPs classification and software facilitating their documentation in community pharmacies.

Inflammation induced by inhaled lipopolysaccharide depends on particle size in healthy volunteers.

In drug development, lung anti-inflammatory properties of new molecules are currently tested on the inhaled LPS model. The total and regional lung bioavailability of inhaled particles depends significantly on their size. The objective was to compare inflammatory responses in healthy volunteers after the inhalation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of varying droplet size.

Development of siRNA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles targeting Galectin-1 for the treatment of gliobmastoma multiforme via intranasal administration

Galectin-1 (Gal-1) is a naturally occurring galactose-binding lectin, which is overexpressed in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Gal-1 is associated with tumor progression, and is a potent immune suppressor in the tumor micro-environment. To inhibit Gal-1 in GBM, an effective therapy is required that reaches the central nervous system tumor, with limited systemic effects. In this study, we report for the first time that concentrated chitosan nanoparticle suspensions can deliver small interfering RNA (siRNA) into the central nervous system tumor within hours after intranasal administration. These nanoparticles are able to complex siRNA targeting Gal-1 to a high percentage, and protect them from RNAse degradation. Moreover, a successful intracellular delivery of anti-Gal-1 siRNA resulted in a decreased expression of Gal-1 in both murine and human GBM cells. Sequence specific RNAinterference, resulted in more than 50% Gal-1 reduction in tumor bearing mice. This study indicates that the intranasal pathway is an underexplored transport route for delivering siRNA-based therapies targeting Gal-1 in the treatment of GBM.

3D printing in pharmaceutics: A new tool for designing customized drug delivery systems

Three-dimensional printing includes a wide variety of manufacturing techniques, which are all based on digitally-controlled depositing of materials (layer-by-layer) to create freeform geometries. Therefore, three-dimensional printing processes are commonly associated with freeform fabrication techniques. For years, these methods were extensively used in the field of biomanufacturing (especially for bone and tissue engineering) to produce sophisticated and tailor-made scaffolds from patient scans. This paper aims to review the processes that can be used in pharmaceutics, including the parameters to be controlled. In practice, it not straightforward for a formulator to be aware of the various technical advances made in this field, which is gaining more and more interest. Thus, a particular aim of this review is to give an overview on the pragmatic tools, which can be used for designing customized drug delivery systems using 3D printing.

Development and evaluation of well-tolerated and tumor-penetrating polymeric micelle-based dry powders for inhaled anti-cancer chemotherapy.

Despite the direct access to the lung offered by the inhalation route, drug penetration into lung tumors could remain an important issue. In this study, folate-polyethylene glycol-hydrophobically-modified dextran (F-PEG-HMD) micelles were developed as an effective pulmonary drug delivery system to reach and penetrate lung tumors and cancer cells. The F-PEG-HMD micelles were able to enter HeLa and M109-HiFR, two folate receptor-expressing cancer cell lines, in vitro, and in vivo after administration by inhalation to orthotopic M109-HiFR lung tumor grafted mice. Paclitaxel-loaded F-PEG-HMD micelles characterized in PBS by a Z-average diameter of ∼50nm and a zeta potential of ∼-4mV were prepared with an encapsulation efficiency of ∼100%. The loaded micelles reduced HeLa and M109-HiFR cell growth, with half maximal inhibitory concentrations of 37 and 150nM, respectively. Dry powders embedding the paclitaxel-loaded F-PEG-HMD micelles were developed by spray-drying. In vitro, good deposition profiles were obtained, with a fine particle fraction of up to 50% and good ability to re-disperse the micelles in physiological buffer. A polymeric micelle-based dry powder without paclitaxel was well-tolerated in vivo, as assessed in healthy mice by determination of total protein content, cell count, and cytokine IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids.

Development of Controlled-Release Cisplatin Dry Powders for Inhalation against Lung Cancers

The present study focuses on the development of dry powders for inhalation as adjuvant chemotherapy in lung cancer treatment. Cisplatin was chosen as a potential candidate for a local treatment as it remains the main platinum component used in conventional chemotherapies, despite its high and cumulative systemic toxicities. Bulk cisplatin was reduced to submicron sizes using high-pressure homogenization, mixed with a solubilized lipid and/or PEGylated component and then spray-dried to produce controlled-release dry powder formulations. The obtained formulations were characterized for their physicochemical properties (particle size and morphology), aerodynamic performance and release profiles. Cisplatin content and integrity were assessed by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry and 195Pt nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. DPI formulations with cisplatin contents ranging from 48.5 to 101.0% w/w exhibited high fine particle fractions ranging from 37.3% to 51.5% of the nominal dose. Formulations containing cisplatin microcrystals dispersed in solid lipid microparticles based on acceptable triglycerides for inhalation and PEGylated excipients showed a controlled-release for more than 24 h and a limited burst effect. These new formulations could provide an interesting approach to increasing and prolonging drug exposure in the lung while minimizing systemic toxicities.

2015

New dry powders for inhalation containing temozolomide-based nanomicelles for improved lung cancer therapy.

Besides the numerous advantages of a chemotherapy administered by the inhalation route for lung cancer therapy, dry powder for inhalation (DPI) offers many advantages compared to other techniques and seems to be a technique that is well-adapted to an anticancer treatment. DPI formulations were developed using the cytotoxic drug temozolomide and a new folate-grafted self-assembling copolymer, a conjugate of three components, folate-polyethylene glycol-hydrophobically-modified dextran (F-PEG-HMD). F-PEG-HMD was synthesized using carbodiimide-mediated coupling chemistry in three main steps. F-PEG-HMD was characterized by 1H-NMR, mass spectrometry and thermal analysis. F-PEG-HMD presented a critical micellar concentration in water of 4x10-7 M. F-PEG-HMD nanomicelles were characterized by a trimodal particle size distribution with Z-average diameter of 83±1 nm in water. Temozolomide-loaded nanomicelles were prepared by solubilization of F-PEG-HMD in the presence of temozolomide. Temozolomide solubility in water was increased in the presence of F-PEG-HMD (2-fold increase in molar solubility) which could potentially lead to increased local concentrations in the tumor site. The temozolomide-loaded F-PEG-HMD nanomicelles were characterized by a Z-average diameter of ~50 to ~60 nm, depending on the F-PEG-HMD concentration used. The nanomicelles were then spray-dried to produce dry powders. Temozolomide remained stable during all the formulation steps, confirmed by similar in vitro anticancer properties for the DPI formulations and a raw temozolomide solution. Two of the developed DPI formulations were characterized by good aerodynamic properties (with a fine particle fraction of up to 50%) and were able to release the F-PEG-HMD nanomicelles quickly in aqueous media. Moreover, in vitro, the two DPI formulations showed wide pulmonary deposition in the lower respiratory tract where adenocarcinomas are more often found. The present study, therefore, shows that F-PEG-HMD-based dry powders for inhalation could constitute an interesting drug delivery system able to release nanomicelles that are useful in adenocarcinomas that overexpress folate receptors.

Development and evaluation in vitro and in vivo of injectable hydrolipidic gels with sustained-release properties for the management of articular pathologies such as osteoarthritis

Abstract This study aimed to evaluate glycerol monooleate (GMO) as a carrier to develop viscoelastic and injectable sustained-release drug delivery systems. The potential pro- and antioxidant activity of the developed hydrolipidic gels were evaluated by measuring the production of ROS by polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs). In addition, the biocompatibility and effectiveness of two selected gel candidates were evaluated in vivo by evaluating the benefit of a single intraarticular injection of these new treatments in a model of osteoarthritis in rabbits. The in vitro study demonstrated that the carrier F1 did not have a pro-oxidative effect and even protected PMNs against natural auto-activation, regardless of the incorporation of either clonidine chlorhydrate or betamethasone dipropionate. The in vivo study demonstrated that F1 and F1-BDP induced a loss of cartilage quality in comparison to the control and reference groups but that the lesions of cartilage observed were generally mild, with not much full-depth erosion. Moreover, no exacerbating inflammation was observed when considering the synovial membranes and the PGE2 and CRP levels. These results seemed to demonstrate that the sustained-release formulation based on GMO could be well-tolerated after intraarticular injection. Moreover, it could have the potential to prevent inflammatory conditions while sustaining drug activity locally over weeks.

Development and evaluation of chitosan and chitosan derivative nanoparticles containing insulin for oral administration

Chitosan and chitosan derivative-based nanoparticles loaded with insulin were prepared by self-assembly, via electrostatic interactions between the negatively charged drug and the positively charged polymers. In the investigated chitosan derivatives, the amine groups were substituted to different extents (33, 52 or 99%) by 2-hydroxypropyl-3-trimethyl ammonium groups, rendering the polymers permanently positively charged, irrespective of the pH. This is an important property for this type of advanced drug delivery system, since the pH value changes throughout the gastrointestinal tract and electrostatic interactions are of crucial importance for the stability of the nanoparticles. Permanent positive charges are also in favor of mucoadhesion. In contrast, the electric charges of chitosan molecules depend on the pH of the surrounding medium. Since the solubility of the chitosan derivatives increased due to the introduction of quaternary ammonium groups, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) was added to the systems to create supplementary cross-links and stabilize the nanoparticles. The presence of TPP influenced both the dissolution of the polymer matrix as well as the resulting release kinetics. The underlying drug release mechanisms were found to be more complex than simple diffusion under constant conditions, likely involving also ionic interactions and matrix dissolution. The most promising formulation was based on a chitosan derivative with 33% substitution degree and characterized by a Z-average of 142 ± 10 nm, a zeta potential of 29 ± 1 mV, an encapsulation efficacy of 52 ± 3% and, most importantly, the release of insulin was sustained for more than 210 min.

2014

Ciprofloxacin monoolein water gels as implants for the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis: In vitro characterization

This work investigated the possibility of using the biodegradable gentamicin-monoolein-water gels as models, in order to obtain a similar sustained release of ciprofloxacin hydrochloride. Four gels containing antibiotics were prepared and were examined with regard to their physicochemical properties and in vitro drug release characteristics. Ciprofloxacin, unlike gentamicin, which was dissolved in the matrix, was in dispersed form. However, despite its insolubility, microscopic observation, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and X-ray diffraction showed that the developed gel was in the cubic liquid crystalline structure and have maintained their ability to progressively release ciprofloxacin. ciprofloxacin-monoolein-water (5:80:15% w/w), which released in vitro approximately 85% of ciprofloxacin after 16 days could possibly be considered as an alternative to a gentamicin-monoolein-water gel for the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis.

Recent developments in inhaled triazoles against invasive pulmonary aspergillosis

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) is a fungal infection that is seen with particular frequency in immunocompromised patients, and associated with high rates of mortality. To combat or prevent IPA, triazoles such as voriconazole or itraconazole and posaconazole have become accepted as first- and second-line therapy, respectively. However, triazoles are associated with issues of oral bioavailability, high liver metabolism, and/or drug-drug interactions, increasing the variability of systemic concentrations. As a way to overcome these issues, inhalation appears to be a promising route for delivery of triazoles for prophylactic or curative therapy in IPA. Indeed, pulmonary drug delivery drastically increases the drug in situ while decreasing the systemic exposure, thereby limiting drug metabolization, side effects, and drug-drug interactions. The development of triazoles for inhalation has focused on voriconazole and itraconazole, drugs which are both highly permeable but with significant different solubility. In this review, we describe the most advanced and promising pharmaceutical developments for voriconazole and itraconazole.

Stability study of full-length antibody (anti-TNF alpha) loaded PLGA microspheres

Antibodies (Abs) require the development of stable formulations and specific delivery strategies given their susceptibility to a variety of physical and chemical degradation pathways. In this study, the encapsulation of an antibody into polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) based microspheres was explored to obtain a controlled-release of the incorporated drug. In order to avoid stability issues, a solid-in-oil-in-water (s/o/w) method was preferred. The solid phase was made of anti-TNF alpha monoclonal antibody (MAb) spray-dried microparticles, and the PLGA microspheres were produced using two different polymers (i.e., Resomer® RG505 and Resomer® RG755S). The stability of the MAb incorporated into the microspheres was investigated under three conditions (5 ± 3 °C, 25 ± 2°C/60% RH and 40 ± 2°C/75% RH) for 12 weeks. During this stability study, it was demonstrated that the MAb loaded PLGA microspheres were stable when stored at 5 ± 3°C and that the Resomer® RG755S, composed of 75% (w/w) lactic acid as PLGA, was preferred to preserve the stability of the system. Storage at temperatures higher than 5°C led to antibody stability issues such as aggregation, fragmentation and loss of activity. The release profiles were also altered. Physical ageing of the system associated with changes in the glass transition temperature and enthalpy of relaxation was noticed during the storage of the MAb loaded PLGA microspheres. © 2014 Elsevier B.V.

Phospholipids in pulmonary drug delivery

Pulmonary delivery is becoming the standard route of administration for treating respiratory disorders such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It is also gaining interest for non-invasive systemic delivery of peptides and proteins. A limited number of excipients is approved or authorized for the pulmonary tract. This restricts the commercial potential of some formulations. Phospholipids and more particularly 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) are the main components of lung surfactant and are recognized as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) excipients for pulmonary drug delivery by the Food and Drug Administration. Moreover, phospholipids could modulate the physicochemical properties of drug delivery systems and therefore the drug release and/or dissolution. They can potentially modulate the drug pharmacokinetic by enhancing the drug permeability through the lung epithelium using palmitoyl-based phospholipids, and/or by reducing recognition of the drug delivery systems by the alveolar macrophages by including DPPC or polyethyleneglycol (PEG) at their surface. Therefore, this review focuses on the formulations containing phospholipids or PEGylated phospholipids, such as micelles, liposomes, lipid micro-/nanoparticles, large porous particles, solid dispersions, and microparticle suspensions.

Pharmacokinetic evaluation in mice of amorphous itraconazole-based dry powder formulations for inhalation with high bioavailability and extended lung retention.

Three Itraconazole (ITZ) dry powders for inhalation (DPI) were prepared by spray-drying a mannitol solution in which the ITZ was in suspension (F1) or was in solution without (F2) or with phospholipid (PL) (F3). These powders were endotracheally insufflated in vivo at a single dose of 0.5mg/kg for pharmacokinetic profile (lung and plasma concentration) determination in ICR CD-1 mice. ITZ was crystalline in F1 and assumed to be amorphous in the F2 and F3 formulations. The amorphous nature of ITZ in F2 and F3 formulations allowed the in vitro formation of an ITZ supersaturated solution with a maximum solubility of 450±124ng/ml (F2) and 498±44ng/ml (F3), in contrast to formulation F1 (<10ng/ml). As a result of these higher solubilities, absorption into the systemic compartment after endotracheal administration was faster for formulations F2 and F3 (shorter tmax) and in larger quantities compared to the F1 formulation (plasmatic AUC0-24h of 182ngh/ml, 491.5ngh/ml and 376.8ngh/ml, and tmax of 60min, 30min and 5min for F1, F2 and F3, respectively). PL increased the systemic bioavailability of ITZ (determined by the AUCplasma to AUClung ratio) as a consequence of their wetting and absorption enhancement effect. ITZ lung concentrations after pulmonary administration remained higher than the targeted dose, based on the minimal inhibitory concentrations for Aspergillus Fumigatus (2μg/gwetlung), 24h post-administration for both F1 and F2 formulations. However, this was not the case for formulation F3, which exhibited a faster elimination rate from the lung, with an elimination half-life of 4.1h vs. 6.5h and 14.7h for F1 and F2, respectively.

2013

Encapsulation of immunoglobulin G by solid-in-oil-in-water: Effect of process parameters on microsphere properties.

Antibodies (Abs) are prone to a variety of physical and chemical degradation pathways, which require the development of stable formulations and specific delivery strategies. In this study, injectable biodegradable and biocompatible polymeric particles were employed for controlled-release dosage forms and the encapsulation of antibodies into polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) based microspheres was explored. In order to avoid stability issues which are commonly described when water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion is used, a solid-in-oil-in-water (s/o/w) method was developed and optimized. The solid phase was made of IgG microparticles and the s/o/w process was evaluated as an encapsulation method using a model Ab molecule (polyclonal bovine immunoglobulin G (IgG)). The methylene chloride (MC) commonly used for an encapsulation process was replaced by ethyl acetate (EtAc), which was considered as a more suitable organic solvent in terms of both environmental and human safety. The effects of several processes and formulation factors were evaluated on IgG:PLGA microsphere properties such as: particle size distribution, drug loading, IgG stability, and encapsulation efficiency (EE%). Several formulations and processing parameters were also statistically identified as critical to get reproducible process (e.g. the PLGA concentration, the volume of the external phase, the emulsification rate, and the quantity of IgG microparticles). The optimized encapsulation method has shown a drug loading of up to 6% (w/w) and an encapsulation efficiency of up to 60% (w/w) while preserving the integrity of the encapsulated antibody. The produced microspheres were characterized by a d(0.9) lower than 110μm and showed burst effect lower than 50% (w/w).

Carrier-free combination for dry powder inhalation of antibiotics in the treatment of lung infections in cystic fibrosis.

The aim of the study was to develop an efficient combination antibiotic formulation containing tobramycin and clarithromycin as a dry powder for inhalation. A carrier-free formulation of the two drugs was produced by spray-drying and characterised for its aerodynamic behaviour by impaction tests with an NGI and release profiles. The particle size distribution, morphological evaluation and crystallinity state were determined by laser diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and powder X-ray diffraction, respectively. Drug deposition profiles were similar for the two antibiotics, which has a synergistic effect, allowing them to reach the target simultaneously at the expected dose. The release profiles show that tobramycin and clarithromycin should probably dissolve without any difficulties in vivo in the lung as 95% of tobramycin and 57% of clarithromycin mass dissolved in 10min for the spray-dried formulation. The FPF increased from 35% and 31% for the physical blend for tobramycin and clarithromycin, respectively, to 65% and 63% for the spray-dried formulation. The spray-dried formulation shows particularly high deposition results, even at sub-optimal inspiratory flow rates, and therefore, represents an attractive alternative in the local treatment of lung infection such as in cystic fibrosis.

Characterization and optimization of GMO-based gels with long term release for intraarticular administration.

Osteoarthritis is characterized by slow degenerative processes in the articular cartilage within synovial joints. It could be interesting to develop a sustained-release formulation that could be effective on both pain/inflammation and restoration of mechanical integrity of the joint. Recently, an injectable system based on glycerol monooleate (GMO), containing clonidine as a model hydrophilic analgesic/anti-inflammatory drug and hyaluronic acid as a viscoelastic scaffold, showed promising potential as a biodegradable and biocompatible preparation to sustain the drug activity. However, drug release from the system is relatively fast (complete within 1 week) and the underlying drug release mechanisms not fully understood. The aims of this study were: (i) to significantly improve this type of local controlled drug delivery system by further sustaining clonidine release, and (ii) to elucidate the underlying mass transport mechanisms. The addition of FDA-approved inactive ingredients such as sodium oleate or purified soybean oil was found to be highly effective. The release rate could be substantially reduced (e.g., 50% release after 10 days), due to the increased hydrophobicity of the systems, resulting in slower and reduced water uptake and reduced drug mobility. Interestingly, Fick's second law of diffusion could be used to quantitatively describe drug release.

Inhaled proteins: challenges and perspectives

Due to recent developments in biochemical engineering and in the understanding of the physiopathology of many diseases, therapeutic biologics are expected to become of increasing importance. Pulmonary delivery of these proteins could constitute an attractive, non-invasive alternative to parenteral delivery. It can be considered for either topical use for treating lung diseases or for systemic use for treating a variety of other diseases. However, administration of proteins to the lungs presents several challenges such as the need for appropriate formulation strategies to overcome high inter-particle interactions and physico-chemical degradation that can lead to loss of biological activity and/or safety issues. In addition, various lung clearance mechanisms have to be avoided to provide a sufficient level of intact protein in the lungs. If systemic action is desired, it is also necessary for the molecule to cross the alveolar epithelium, which is particularly challenging for large proteins with many hydrophilic domains.The purpose of this article is to review the main challenges in the formulation of proteins for inhalation and the possible strategies that can be applied. Because of the particular success of dry formulations in stabilising proteins, there is a special focus on their development, along with the drying techniques and stabilising excipients used. Finally, an overview is given of the existing commercial preparations and of the main clinical developments in inhaled proteins for either topical or systemic applications.

New co-spray-dried tobramycin nanoparticles-clarithromycin inhaled powder systems for lung infection therapy in cystic fibrosis patients.

The aim of the study was to produce easily dispersible and porous agglomerates of tobramycin nanoparticles surrounded by a matrix composed of amorphous clarithromycin. Nanoparticles of tobramycin with a median particle size of about 400 nm were produced by high-pressure homogenisation. The results from the spray-dried powders showed that the presence of these nanoparticles enhanced powder dispersion during inhalation. Moreover, local drug deposition profiles were similar for the two antibiotics, allowing them to reach the target simultaneously. The dissolution-release profiles showed that tobramycin and clarithromycin might dissolve without any difficulties in the lung. The fine particle fraction increased from 35% and 31% for the physical blend for tobramycin and clarithromycin, respectively, to 63% and 62% for the spray-dried formulation containing nanoparticles. These new formulations, showing high lung deposition properties, even at sub-optimal inspiratory flow rates, represent a great possibility for advancing pulmonary drug administration and local therapy of lung infections. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. and the American Pharmacists Association J Pharm Sci.

Evaluation of the degradation of clonidine-loaded PLGA microspheres

Cyclic versus Hemi-Bastadins. Pleiotropic Anti-Cancer Effects: from Apoptosis to Anti-Angiogenic and Anti-Migratory Effects.

Bastadins-6, -9 and -16 isolated from the marine sponge Ianthella basta displayed in vitro cytostatic and/or cytotoxic effects in six human and mouse cancer cell lines. The in vitro growth inhibitory effects of these bastadins were similar in cancer cell lines sensitive to pro-apoptotic stimuli versus cancer cell lines displaying various levels of resistance to pro-apoptotic stimuli. While about ten times less toxic than the natural cyclic bastadins, the synthetically derived 5,5'-dibromohemibastadin-1 (DBHB) displayed not only in vitro growth inhibitory activity in cancer cells but also anti-angiogenic properties. At a concentration of one tenth of its in vitro growth inhibitory concentration, DBHB displayed actual antimigratory effects in mouse B16F10 melanoma cells without any sign of cytotoxicity and/or growth inhibition. The serum concentration used in the cell culture media markedly influenced the DBHB-induced antimigratory effects in the B16F10 melanoma cell population. We are currently developing a specific inhalation formulation for DBHB enabling this compound to avoid plasmatic albumin binding through its direct delivery to the lungs to combat primary as well as secondary (metastases) tumors.

Synthesis and plasma pharmacokinetics in CD-1 mice of a 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid derivative displaying anti-cancer activity

Objectives The plasma pharmacokinetic profile in CD-1 mice of a novel 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) derivative, which displays in vitro anti-cancer activity, was assessed. Methods This study involved an original one-step synthesis of N-(2-{3-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]ureido}ethyl)- glycyrrhetinamide, (2) a compound that displays marked anti-proteasome and anti-kinase activity. The bioselectivity profile of 2 on human normal NHDF fibroblasts vs human U373 glioblastoma cells was assessed. Maximal tolerated dose (MTD) profiling of 2 was carried out in CD1 mice, and its serum pharmacokinetics were profiled using an acute intravenous administration of 40 mg/kg body weight. Key findings Compound 2 displayed IC50 in vitro growth inhibitory concentrations of 29 and 8 μm on NHDF fibroblasts and U373 glioblastoma cells, respectively, thus a bioselectivity index of ∼4. The intravenous pharmacokinetic parameters revealed that 2 was rapidly distributed (t1/2dist of ∼3 min) but slowly eliminated (t1/2elim = ∼77 min). Conclusions This study describes an original and reliable nanoemulsion of a GA derivative with both anti-proteasome and anti-kinase properties and that should be further tested in vivo using various human xenograft or murine syngeneic tumour models with both single and chronic intravenous administration. © 2012. Royal Pharmaceutical Society.

Formulations for Intranasal Delivery of Pharmacological Agents to Combat Brain Disease: A New Opportunity to Tackle GBM?

Despite recent advances in tumor imaging and chemoradiotherapy, the median overall survival of patients diagnosed with glioblastoma multiforme does not exceed 15 months. Infiltration of glioma cells into the brain parenchyma, and the blood-brain barrier are important hurdles to further increase the efficacy of classic therapeutic tools. Local administration methods of therapeutic agents, such as convection enhanced delivery and intracerebral injections, are often associated with adverse events. The intranasal pathway has been proposed as a non-invasive alternative route to deliver therapeutics to the brain. This route will bypass the blood-brain barrier and limit systemic side effects. Upon presentation at the nasal cavity, pharmacological agents reach the brain via the olfactory and trigeminal nerves. Recently, formulations have been developed to further enhance this nose-to-brain transport, mainly with the use of nanoparticles. In this review, the focus will be on formulations of pharmacological agents, which increase the nasal permeation of hydrophilic agents to the brain, improve delivery at a constant and slow release rate, protect therapeutics from degradation along the pathway, increase mucoadhesion, and facilitate overall nasal transport. A mounting body of evidence is accumulating that the underexplored intranasal delivery route might represent a major breakthrough to combat glioblastoma.

2012

New Inhalation-Optimized Itraconazole Nanoparticle-Based Dry Powders for the Treatment of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis

Purpose: Itraconazole (ITZ) dry powders for inhalation (DPI) composed of nanoparticles (NP) embedded in carrier microparticles were prepared and characterized. Methods: DPIs were initially produced by reducing the ITZ particle size to the nanometer range using high-pressure homogenization with tocopherol polyethylene 1000 succinate (TPGS, 10% w/w ITZ) as a stabilizer. The optimized nanosuspension and the initial microsuspension were then spray-dried with different proportions of or in the absence of mannitol and/or sodium taurocholate. DPI characterization was performed using scanning electron microscopy for morphology, laser diffraction to evaluate the size-reduction process, and the size of the dried NP when reconstituted in aqueous media, impaction studies using a multistage liquid impactor to determine the aerodynamic performance and fine-particle fraction that is theoretically able to reach the lung, and dissolution studies to determine the solubility of ITZ. Results: Scanning electron microscopy micrographs showed that the DPI particles were composed of mannitol microparticles with embedded nano- or micro-ITZ crystals. The formulations prepared from the nanosuspension exhibited good flow properties and better fine-particle fractions, ranging from 46.2% ± 0.5% to 63.2% ± 1.7% compared to the 23.1% ± 0.3% that was observed with the formulation produced from the initial microsuspension. Spray-drying affected the NP size by inducing irreversible aggregation, which was able to be minimized by the addition of mannitol and sodium taurocholate before the drying procedure. The ITZ NP-based DPI considerably increased the ITZ solubility (58 ± 2 increased to 96 ± 1 ng/mL) compared with that of raw ITZ or an ITZ microparticle-based DPI (,10 ng/mL). Conclusion: Embedding ITZ NP in inhalable microparticles is a very effective method to produce DPI formulations with optimal aerodynamic properties and enhanced ITZ solubility. These formulations could be applied to other poorly water-soluble drugs and could be a very effective alternative for treating invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. © 2012 Cárdenas et al, publisher and licensee Dove Medical Press Ltd.

New sustained-release intraarticular gel formulations based on monolein for local treatment of arthritic diseases.

Inflammatory osteoarthritis (OA) is characterized by painful and destructive inflammatory flares of a single joint, mainly in the back, the knees, the wrists or the hips. Monoarthritis is generally treated by intraarticular (IA) injections of corticosteroids or hyaluronic acid (HA). However, due to their toxicity, the chronic use of corticosteroids should be avoided. The aim of this work was to develop a new slow-release formulation for a parenteral route of administration (e.g., IA). The development's strategy was based on the use of amphiphilic ingredients such as glyceryl monooleate (GMO), which is able to generate viscous crystalline phase structures upon contact with an aqueous fluid (e.g., synovial fluid) to sustain the drug activity over weeks. Clonidine (CLO) was suggested as a small and hydrophilic model drug and HA as a hydrophilic viscoelastic scaffold. Thermal analyses showed that the stability of GMO, HA, and CLO in mixtures with a ratio of 1:1 (wt/wt) was not affected in comparison with the raw materials. In order to obtain a formulation presenting suitable syringeability and containing GMO, CLO, and HA, two elements were found to be essential: a minimum of about 15% (wt/wt) water content and the use of co-solvents such as ethanol (ET) and propylene glycol (PG), approved by the FDA for parenteral use. Several developed gels presented pseudoplastic flow behavior. Moreover, the best composition provided an in vitro release of CLO for about 1 week that was similar to a cubic reference formulation, described by many authors as presenting poor syringeability but the best sustained-release capacity.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of a dry powder endotracheal insufflator device for use in dose-dependent preclinical studies in mice.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of the Penn-Century Dry Powder Insufflator for mice (DP-4M®) to reproducibly, uniformly, and deeply deliver dry powders for inhalation in the mouse lung. Itraconazole-based dry powder formulations produced by spray-drying were different in terms of composition (different ratios of drug and mannitol, with or without phospholipids), but relatively similar in terms of particle size and mass median aerodynamic diameter. The ability of the dry powder insufflator to disaggregate each formulation was the same, indicated by the absence of a statistically significant difference between the particle size distribution parameters, as measured by laser scattering. The emitted fraction varied in vivo compared to the in vitro condition. Fluorescent particle distribution in the lungs was uniform and reached the alveolar spaces, as visualized by fluorescent microscopy. In terms of drug recovery in lung tissue, a minimum administered powder mass (in this case ∼1mg) was necessary to recover at least 30% of the emitted dose in the lung and to obtain reproducible pulmonary concentrations. To reduce the dose administered in the lung, it was preferable to dilute the active ingredient within the carrier instead of reducing the dry powder mass inserted in the sampling chamber. Dry powder insufflators are devices usable in dose-dependent preclinical trials but have critical parameters to efficiently deliver reproducible doses depending on the type of formulation.

Development and evaluation of sustained-release clonidine-loaded PLGA microparticles.

This work describes the encapsulation of a small, hydrophilic molecule (clonidine) into a PLGA matrix to provide sustained release over more than one month after intra-articular administration. The microparticles were prepared using a double emulsion (w(1)/o/w(2)) method followed by evaporation of the organic solvent. To optimize the efficiency of encapsulation and the mean size of the microparticles, which was targeted around 30μm, the following parameters were modulated: the viscosity and the volume of the organic phase, the molecular weight of the polymer, the volume of the internal and external aqueous phases, the drug loading, the concentration of surfactant, and the stirring parameters. Blends of polymers characterized by different molecular weights (34000-96000Da) as well as copolymers of PLGA-PEG were used to enhance the entrapment of the drug. The pH of the aqueous phases was adjusted to obtain suitable encapsulation efficiency. Characterization was made of the physico-chemical properties of the microparticles, such as their crystallinity (DSC and PXRD) and microstructure (SEM). When performing in vitro dissolution studies, controlled release for up to approximately 30days was achieved with several of the formulations developed. Diffusion was found to be the dominant drug release mechanism at early time points.

Trivanillic polyphenols with anticancer cytostatic effects through the targeting of multiple kinases and intracellular Ca 2+ release

New Respirable and Fast Dissolving Itraconazole Dry Powder Composition for the Treatment of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis.

PURPOSE: Novel itraconazole (ITZ)-based dry powders for inhalation (DPI) were optimized for aerodynamic and dissolution properties and contained excipients that are acceptable for inhalation. METHODS: The DPI were produced by spray drying solutions. The drug content, crystallinity state, and morphological evaluation of the dry powders were determined by high performance liquid chromatography, powder X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and scanning electron microscopy, respectively. A particle size analysis was conducted using laser light scattering. The aerodynamic behaviors of the powders were characterized by impaction tests. ITZ dissolution rates were evaluated using a dissolution method adapted to inhaled products. RESULTS: The DPI presented very high fine particle fractions that ranged from 46.9% to 67.0% of the nominal dose. The formulations showed very fast dissolution rates compared to unformulated crystalline ITZ with the possibility of modulating the dissolution rate by varying the quantity of phospholipids (PL) incorporated. ITZ remained amorphous while the mannitol was crystalline. The α, β and δ-mannitol polymorph ratios varied depending on the formulation compositions. CONCLUSION: This formulation strategy could be an attractive alternative for treating invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. The ITZ and PL content are key characteristics because of their influence on the dissolution rate and aerosol performance.

Solid dispersions of itraconazole for inhalation with enhanced dissolution, solubility and dispersion properties.

The purpose of this study was to produce a dry powder for inhalation (DPI) of a poorly soluble active ingredient (itraconazole: ITZ) that would present an improved dissolution rate and enhanced solubility with good aerosolization properties. Solid dispersions of amorphous ITZ, mannitol and, when applicable, D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) were produced by spray-drying hydro-alcoholic solutions in which all agents were dissolved. These dry formulations were characterized in terms of their aerosol performances and their dissolution, solubility and physical properties. Modulate differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray powder diffraction analyses showed that ITZ recovered from the different spray-dried solutions was in an amorphous state and that mannitol was crystalline. The inlet drying temperature and, indirectly, the outlet temperature selected during the spray-drying were critical parameters. The outlet temperature should be below the ITZ glass transition temperature to avoid severe particle agglomeration. The formation of a solid dispersion between amorphous ITZ and mannitol allowed the dry powder to be produced with an improved dissolution rate, greater saturation solubility than bulk ITZ and good aerosol properties. The use of a polymeric surfactant (such as TPGS) was beneficial in terms of dissolution rate acceleration and solubility enhancement, but it also reduced aerosol performance. For example, significant dissolution rate acceleration (f(2)<50) and greater saturation solubility were obtained when introducing 1% (w/w) TPGS (mean dissolution time dropped from 50.4 min to 36.9 min and saturation solubility increased from 20 ± 3 ng/ml to 46 ± 2 ng/ml). However, the fine particle fraction dropped from 47 ± 2% to 37.2 ± 0.4%. This study showed that mannitol solid dispersions may provide an effective formulation type for producing DPIs of poorly soluble active ingredients, as exemplified by ITZ.

Lactose characteristics and the generation of the aerosol

The delivery efficiency of dry-powder products for inhalation is dependent upon the drug formulation, the inhaler device, and the inhalation technique. Dry powder formulations are generally produced by mixing the micronised drug particles with larger carrier particles. These carrier particles are commonly lactose. The aerosol performance of a powder is highly dependent on the lactose characteristics, such as particle size distribution and shape and surface properties. Because lactose is the main component in these formulations, its selection is a crucial determinant of drug deposition into the lung, as interparticle forces may be affected by the carrier-particle properties. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to review the various grades of lactose, their production, and the methods of their characterisation. The origin of their adhesive and cohesive forces and their influence on aerosol generation are described, and the impact of the physicochemical properties of lactose on carrier-drug dispersion is discussed in detail.

Comparative pharmacoscintigraphic and pharmacokinetic evaluation of two new formulations of inhaled insulin in type 1 diabetic patients.

In this open, single-dose study, we compared the lung deposition and bioavailability of two newly developed insulin formulations for pulmonary delivery. Twelve type 1 diabetic patients were administered the two insulin products (2U/kgb.w.), which had been radiolabelled with (99m)Tc. The formulations were either microparticles of insulin without excipients (F1) or lipid-coated insulin microparticles (F2). Lung deposition was assessed by γ-scintigraphy imaging performed immediately after administration. Bioavailability was evaluated by quantifying serum insulin levels over a period of 6h. Lung deposition was found to be 50±9% and 24±8% for the F1 and F2 formulations, respectively. The insulin AUC(0-360) ratio of F1/F2 was 188%, which was consistent with scintigraphic imaging. The concordance between imaging and biological results suggests that the lower bioavailability of F2 is due to its lower lung deposition and not to a reduced absorption into the blood stream. Additional in vitro experiments indicated that the lower performance of F2 was most probably related to a lower disaggregation efficiency of the powder when administered at a sub-optimal flow rate. The two formulations showed interesting pharmacokinetic profiles (T(max) of 26 and 16min for F1 and F2, respectively) that mimic the physiological insulin secretion pattern. The bioavailability of the developed formulations was within the range of other DPI insulin formulations that have reached the final stages of clinical development.

2010

Temozolomide-Based Dry Powder Formulations for Lung Tumor-Related Inhalation Treatment.

PURPOSE: Temozolomide dry powder formulations for inhalation, performed with no excipient or with a lipid or lactose coating, have been evaluated. METHODS: The particle size of raw temozolomide in suspension was reduced by a high-pressure homogenizing technique, and the solvent was evaporated by spray-drying to obtain a dry powder. The physicochemical properties of this powder were evaluated and included its crystalline state, thermal properties, morphology, particle size and moisture and drug content, and these properties were determined by X-ray powder diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy, laser light scattering, thermogravimetric analysis and high-performance liquid chromatography, respectively. The aerodynamic properties and release profiles were also evaluated using a multistage liquid impinger and a modified USP type 2 dissolution apparatus adapted for inhaler products, respectively. RESULTS: The dry powder inhalation formulations had a high temozolomide content that ranged from 70% to 100% in the crystalline state and low moisture content. Aerodynamic evaluations showed high fine-particle fractions of up to 51% related to the metered dose. The dissolution profile revealed a similarly fast temozolomide release from the formulations. CONCLUSIONS: Dry temozolomide powder formulations, based on the use of acceptable excipients for inhalation and showing good dispersion properties, represent an attractive alternative for use in local lung cancer therapy.

Formulation and in vitro evaluation of highly dispersive insulin dry powder formulations for lung administration.

The aim of this work was to develop highly dispersible and dry formulations of insulin for use in dry powder inhalers (DPIs) using high-pressure homogenisation (HPH) and spray-drying. Several formulations were evaluated, including formulations spray-dried without excipients and formulations coated with lipids. A physiological lipid composition based on a mixture of cholesterol and phospholipids was used to form the coating film around micronised drug particles. The production technique and excipients were chosen in order to limit the degradation of the active ingredient. The resulting powders exhibited a size and shape suitable for the deep lung deposition of drugs, and good aerodynamic features were obtained for the different formulations tested, with fine particle fractions between 46% and 63% vs. 11% for raw insulin powder. The presence of a lipid coating of up to 30% (w/w) did not significantly affect the aerodynamic behaviour, and the coated formulations also exhibited a decreased residual moisture content of between 2.3% and 3.7% vs. 4.8% for raw insulin, which should improve the long-term stability of the protein formulations. No degradation of the insulin molecule occurred during the HPH/spray-drying process, as it was shown using an HPLC method (insulin content between 98.4% and 100.5%), and the content in high molecular weight proteins, assessed using a gel filtration method, stayed below 0.4%.

Formulation strategy and use of excipients in pulmonary drug delivery.

Pulmonary administration of drugs presents several advantages in the treatment of many diseases. Considering local and systemic delivery, drug inhalation enables a rapid and predictable onset of action and induces fewer side effects than other routes of administration. Three main inhalation systems have been developed for the aerosolization of drugs; namely, nebulizers, pressurized metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) and dry powder inhalers (DPIs). The latter are currently the most convenient alternative as they are breath-actuated and do not require the use of any propellants. The deposition site in the respiratory tract and the efficiency of inhaled aerosols are critically influenced by the aerodynamic diameter, size distribution, shape and density of particles. In the case of DPIs, since micronized particles are generally very cohesive and exhibit poor flow properties, drug particles are usually blended with coarse and fine carrier particles. This increases particle aerodynamic behavior and flow properties of the drugs and ensures accurate dosage of active ingredients. At present, particles with controlled properties are obtained by milling, spray drying or supercritical fluid techniques. Several excipients such as sugars, lipids, amino acids, surfactants, polymers and absorption enhancers have been tested for their efficacy in improving drug pulmonary administration. The purpose of this article is to describe various observations that have been made in the field of inhalation product development, especially for the dry powder inhalation formulation, and to review the use of various additives, their effectiveness and their potential toxicity for pulmonary administration.

The effects of excipients on transporter mediated absorption.

Traditionally most pharmaceutical excipients used for peroral dosage forms have been considered to be inert, although they have been known to play an important role in governing the release of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) required for the desired therapeutic effect. Of considerable interest is the emerging data demonstrating that many of these "inert" excipients may produce subtle changes that could directly or indirectly alter the activity of membrane-spanning proteins such as transporters. In this way, excipients could be altering the overall ADMET properties of an incorporated drug thereby affecting its intended therapeutic efficacy and/or enhancing adverse side effects. Therefore, given this recent evidence, it seems necessary to review what has been reported in the literature on interactions of excipients with human physiological entities, particularly transporters. As of today, safety/toxicity evaluations are typically based on the appearance of gross morphological changes rather than the effects on a cellular level, the ability of excipients in modifying the pharmacological activity of an active drug could lead to toxicity evaluation in routine for each additive used in oral formulations. Further knowledge on this subject will enable formulators to make more rational decisions in dosage form design and will help answer the question of whether certain excipients should be considered active pharmaceutical components of formulations.

In vivo assessment of temozolomide local delivery for lung cancer inhalation therapy.

The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of local drug delivery by inhalation to intravenous delivery in a B16F10 melanoma metastatic lung model. Temozolomide was formulated as a suspension, which was elaborated and evaluated in terms of particle size, shape and agglomeration. An endotracheal administration device was used to aerosolise the suspension. This mode of delivery was evaluated at different temozolomide concentrations and was optimized for the uniformity of delivered dose, the droplet size distribution and the distribution of droplets in vivo. Of the particles in the stabilised suspension, 79% were compatible with the human respirable size range, and this formulation retained 100% in vitro anticancer activity as compared to temozolomide alone in three distinct cancer cell lines. The pulmonary delivery device provided good reproducibility in terms of both the dose delivered and the droplet size distribution. Most of the lung tissues that were exposed to aerosol droplets contained the particles, as revealed by fluorescent microscopy techniques. The global in vivo antitumour activity of the inhaled temozolomide provided a median survival period similar to that for intravenous temozolomide delivery, and three out of 27 mice (11%) survived with almost complete eradication of the lung tumours. The present study thus shows that inhalation of a simple liquid formulation is well tolerated and active against a very biologically aggressive mouse melanoma pulmonary pseudo-metastatic model. This inhalation delivery could be used to deliver other types of anticancer drugs.

Encapsulation of ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate, a light-sensitive UV filter, in lipid nanoparticles.

The aim of this study was to encapsulate ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EMC), a commonly used UVB filter, in a solid lipid matrix in order to obtain microparticles and then nanoparticles to reduce its photo-instability under UV light exposure. Glyceryl behenate, rice bran wax and ozokerite were investigated for encapsulating EMC. The suspensions of nanoparticles contained 70% encapsulated EMC (relative to the lipid mass). The absorbance level at 310 nm of suspensions containing nanoparticles was more than twice that of those containing microparticles. So, decreasing the size of particles improved the efficiency of light protection, regardless of the lipid material used. Moreover, free EMC presented a 30% loss of its efficiency after 2 h of irradiation, whereas the three NLC formulations showed a loss of absorbency between 10% and 21%. The in vitro cutaneous penetration test did not show a higher potential penetration for EMC contained in nanosuspensions compared to free EMC.

2009

Development of an in vitro endotoxin test for monoolein-water liquid crystalline gel for use as an implant

Levodopa delivery systems for the treatment of Parkinson's disease: an overview.

This review describes the different drug delivery systems containing levodopa that are used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Their composition, process of preparation, advantages, disadvantages and limitations are discussed as well as the major objective in the management of Parkinson's disease according to the pathology of the disease.

In vitro evaluation of the cutaneous penetration of sprayable sunscreen emulsions with high concentrations of UV filters

Nano-emulsions of fluorinated trityl radicals as sensors for EPR oximetry.

This article reports the development and evaluation of two nano-emulsions (F45T-03/HFB and F15T-03/PFOB) containing fluorinated trityl radicals dissolved in perfluorocarbons. Preparation with a high-pressure homogenizer conferred sub-micronic size to both nano-emulsions. In vitro and in vivo EPR spectroscopy showed that the nano-emulsions had much greater oxygen sensitivity than the hydrophilic trityl, CT-03. In vivo experiments in rodents confirmed the ability of the nano-emulsions to follow the changes in oxygen concentration after induced ischemia. Histological evaluation of the tissue injected with the nano-emulsions revealed some acute toxicity for the F45T-03/HFB nano-emulsion but none for the F15T-03/PFOB nano-emulsion. These new formulations should be considered for further EPR oximetry experiments in pathophysiological situations where subtle changes in tissue oxygenation are expected.

Spray-dried carrier-free dry powder tobramycin formulations with improved dispersion properties

Preparation and characterization of spray-dried tobramycin powders containing nanoparticles for pulmonary delivery

Using high-pressure homogenization and spray-drying techniques, novel formulations were developed for manufacturing dry powder for inhalation, composed of a mixture of micro- and nanoparticles in order to enhance lung deposition. Particle size analysis was performed by laser diffraction. Spray-drying was applied in order to retrieve nanoparticles in dried-powder state from tobramycin nanosuspensions. The aerolization properties of the different formulations were evaluated by a multi-stage liquid impinger. Suspensions of nanoparticles of tobramycin containing Na glycocholate at 2% (w/w) relative to tobramycin content and presenting a mean particle size about 200 nm were produced. The results from the spray-dried powders showed that the presence of nanoparticles in the formulations improved particle dispersion properties during inhalation. The fine particle fraction (percentage of particles below 5 μm) increased from 36% for the raw micronized tobramycin material to about 61% for the most effective formulation. These new nanoparticle-containing tobramycin DPI formulations, based on the use of very low level of excipient and presenting high lung deposition properties, offer very important perspectives for improving the delivery of drugs to the pulmonary tract. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

2008

Pharmacoscintigraphic and pharmacokinetic evaluation on healthy human volunteers of sustained-release floating minitablets containing levodopa and carbidopa.

In this study, scintigraphic and pharmacokinetic studies were conducted on 10 healthy, fed volunteers. Two concepts of sustained-release floating minitablets--Levo-Form 1 (matrix) and 2 (coated)--were evaluated and compared to the marketed product Prolopa HBS 125. All the floating forms were radiolabelled with (111)In in order to evaluate their gastric residence time using gamma-scintigraphy. It was shown that the three formulations offered almost the same mean gastric residence time, which was about 240 min. Prolopa HBS 125 and Levo-Form 2 presented intragastric disintegration, which can lead to a more pronounced "peak & valley" effect on the plasma concentration-time profile of levodopa. In contrast, the plasma concentration-time profile of levodopa following the administration of Levo-Form 1 was more evenly distributed. Moreover, Levo-Form 1 provided the lowest variations between men and women in terms of AUC and C(max) values. Finally, when the same amount of inhibitors of extracerebral dopa decarboxylase--carbidopa and benserazide--had been administrated, the mean AUC, C(max) and T(max) values obtained for benserazide were lower than those obtained for carbidopa.

Evaluation and floating enhancement of levodopa sustained release floating minitablets coated with insoluble acrylic polymer

Correlations between cascade impactor analysis and laser diffraction techniques for the determination of the particle size of aerosolised powder formulations

The purpose of the study was to examine the suitability of the Spraytec® laser diffraction technique for measuring the size distribution of aerosol particles generated from dry powder inhalators. A range of formulations with different dispersion properties were produced by spray-drying. The percentage of particles below 5.0 μm of these formulations was measured by laser diffraction (Mastersizer® 2000 and Spraytec®) and inertial impaction (MsLI and NGI) using various inhaler devices and at different flow rates between 30 and 100 l/min. Linear relationships and correlations (R2 > 0.9) existed between the results obtained from, on one hand, the Mastersizer® 2000 and the Spraytec®, and, on the other hand, the MsLI and the Spraytec® regardless of flow rates and inhaler devices. The Spraytec® could be a reliable technique for the development, evaluation and quality control of dry powder aerosol formulations. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In vitro evaluation of two concepts of sustained release floating minitablets according to the model drug used

New levodopa sustained-release floating minitablets coated with insoluble acrylic polymer

The aim of this study was to develop a new coated multiple-unit sustained-release floating system that is able to float over an extended period of time. Levodopa was used as a model drug. The system consisted of a 3 mm drug-containing gas-generating core, prepared by melt granulation and subsequent compression, and coated with a flexible polymeric membrane. Eudragit® RL30D and ATEC were used as a film former and a plasticizer, respectively. The coating level was fixed at 20% (w/w). The floating lag time decreased as the proportion of effervescent agents increased. The optimized coated floating minitablets could float within 20 min and remained buoyant for more than 13 h. In addition, a sustained release of levodopa for more than 20 h was observed. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Pharmacoscintigraphic and pharmacokinetic evaluation of tobramycin DPI formulations in cystic fibrosis patients

Tobramycin dry powder formulations were evaluated by gamma scintigraphy and pharmacokinetic methods. In an open single-dose, three-treatment, three-period, cross-over study, nine cystic fibrosis patients received both the two test products and the reference product Tobi® (nebulizer solution) in order to assess lung deposition and systemic comparative bioavailability of the two investigational inhaled products versus the marketed inhaled comparator product. The percentage of dose (mean ± SD) in the whole lung was 53.0 ± 10.0% for the tobramycin Form 1, 34.1 ± 12.4% for the tobramycin Form 2 and 7.6 ± 2.7% for the comparator product Tobi®. Lung deposition expressed as a percentage of the nominal dose was thus estimated to be 7.0 and 4.5 times higher for the Tobra Form 1 and Tobra Form 2 than for the Tobi®, respectively. Furthermore, the systemic bioavailability (adjusted to correspond to the same drug dose as that of the comparator product deposited in the lung) was found to be 1.6 times higher for the comparator product Tobi® than for the two DPI formulations. The principal advantages of the DPI formulations include reduced systemic availability and thus, side effects, and higher dose levels of the drug at the site of drug action. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In vivo biocompatibility and toxicity assessment of a gentamicin-loaded Monoolein gel as implant for the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis

In vitro biocompatibility and genotoxicity assessment of a gentamicin-loaded Monoolein gel as implant for the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis

Preliminary clinical assessment of a gentamicin-loaded monoolein gel intended to treat chronic osteomyelitis

The aim of this study was to perform a preliminary clinical assessment of efficacy and safety of a biodegradable gentamicin-loaded monoolein gel. An open single dose, one treatment study including 19 patients with chronic osteomyelitis caused by a microorganism sensitive to gentamicin was conducted. After surgical curettage of the infected bone, the dead space was filled in with the gentamicin-loaded monoolein gel. To prevent post-operative septicaemia, a systemic antibiotherapy was prescribed for 3 days following the operation. Clinical,biological and radiological follow-up was performed to assess the efficacy and the safety of the treatment. After a follow-up period ranging from 2 to 12 months, all 19 patients included in the study felt well. Eighteen patients recovered from chronic osteomyelitis without adverse events. The wound of one patient whose bone was exposed did not scar over after 10 months. However, it was no longer infected In conclusion, gentamicin-loaded monoolein gel was efficacious in treating chronic osteomyelitis without side-effects. © 2008 Academic Journals Inc.

Monoolein-water liquid crystalline gels of gentamicin as bioresorbable implants for the local treatment of chronic osteomyelitis

2007

Influence of different parameters on droplet size and size distribution of sprayable sunscreen emulsions with high concentration of UV-filters

Storage of Yarrowia lipolytica lipase after spray-drying in the presence of additives

Lipase from Yarrowia lipolytica is an enzyme that presents numerous potentialities for biotechnological applications. This work describes the development of powders obtained by atomization of supernatants lipase from Y. lipolytica LGx6481. Two formulations were studied: one formulation with skim milk powder and gum arabic, and the other with maltodextrin, calcium chloride and gum arabic. After drying, powders were stored at 4 and 20 °C in aluminium hermetic bags to evaluate their stability over a period of one year. The influence of water activity and glass transition temperature (Tg) on the powder's storage were also studied. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Evaluation of the content homogeneity and dispersion properties of fluticasone DPI compositions

Development and evaluation of new multiple-unit levodopa sustained-release floating dosage forms

This work relates to the development and the in vitro evaluation of sustained-release minitablets (MT), prepared by melt granulation and subsequent compression, which are designed to float over an extended period of time. Levodopa was used as a model drug. The importance of the composition and manufacturing parameters of the MT on their floating and dissolution properties was then examined. The investigation showed that MT composition and MT diameter had the greatest influence on drug release, which was sustained for more than 8 h. By using the same formulation, the best floating properties were obtained with 3 mm MT prepared at low compression forces ranging between 50 and 100 N. Their resultant-weight (RW) values were always higher than those obtained with a marketed HBS dosage form within 13 h. When they were filled into gelatin capsules, no sticking was observed. By evaluating the dissolution profiles of levodopa at different pH values, it was found that dissolution profiles depend more on the prolonged-release ability of Methocel® K15M than on the pH-dependent solubility of levodopa. Finally, the robustness of the floating MT was assessed by testing the drug release variability in function of the stirring conditions during dissolution tests. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

2006

Preparation and in vitro/in vivo evaluation of nano-sized crystals for dissolution rate enhancement of ucb-35440-3, a highly dosed poorly water-soluble weak base

ucb-35440-3 is a new drug entity under investigation at UCB S.A. Due to its physicochemical characteristics, the drug, a poorly water-soluble weak base, shows poor solubility and dissolution characteristics. In rat, the low oral bioavailability (F < 10%) is largely due to poor absorption. In order to enhance the solubility and dissolution characteristics, formulation of ucb-35440-3 as nanocrystals has been achieved in this study. Nanoparticles were prepared using high pressure homogenization and were characterized in terms of size and morphology. In vitro dissolution characteristics were investigated and compared to the un-milled drug in order to verify the theoretical hypothesis on the benefit of increased surface area. In vivo pharmacokinetic evaluation of ucb-35440-3 nanoparticles was also carried out on rats. Crystalline state evaluation before and following particle size reduction was conducted through polarized light microscopy and PXRD to denote any possible transformation to an amorphous state during the homogenization process. Drug chemical stability was also assessed following homogenization. The dissolution rate increased significantly at pH 3.0, 5.0 and 6.5 for ucb-35440-3 nanoparticles. However, the pharmacokinetic profile obtained yielded lower systemic exposure than the un-milled compound (in fed state), this although being thought to be the consequence of the drug and formulation characteristics. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Nifedipine nanocrystals: Pharmacokinetic evaluation in the rat and permeability studies in Caco-2/HT29-5M21 (co)-cultures

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of floating riboflavin pellets developed using the melt pelletization process

Floating pellets were prepared using the melt pelletization process in a Mi-Pro® high shear mixer (Pro-C-epT, Belgium). Formulations were based on a mixture of Compritol® and Precirol® as meltable binders and on the use of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid as gas-generating agents. Good floating abilities were obtained by using the gas-generating agents in both the inner matrix and the outer coating layer of the pellets. In vitro evaluation of floating capability was performed both by using the resultant weight apparatus and by counting floating pellets at the surface of beakers containing 0.1N HCl solution, in vivo evaluation of floating pellets capabilities was also performed. Riboflavin-containing floating pellets (FRF) were administered orally to nine healthy volunteers versus non-floating pellets (NFRF). Volunteers were divided in two groups, fasted group (n = 4) 729 kcal and fed group (n = 5) 1634 kcal as the total calorie intake on the testing day. An increase of urinary excretion of riboflavin was observed when the volunteers were dosed with the floating pellets, especially after feeding. As riboflavin has a narrow window of absorption in the upper part of small intestine, this phenomenon could be attributable to the gastric retention of floating pellets. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Development and in vitro evaluation of a novel floating multiple unit dosage form obtained by melt pelletization

The feasibility of preparing floating pellets by melt pelletization was investigated. The pellets were prepared in a high shear mixer. Formulations were based on a mixture of Compritol® and Precirol® as lipidic binders and on sodium bicarbonate as a gas-generating agent. The floating ability of the pellets was evaluated in vitro. Good floating capabilities were obtained for formulations containing the gas-generating agent in both the inner matrix and the outer coating layer of the pellets. As an example, a placebo formulation containing 50% lactose 450 Me, 22% Compritol®, 15% Precirol®, 8% sodium bicarbonate and 5% Methocel® K100 (w/w) in the inner matrix, and 66% Precirol® and 34% sodium bicarbonate (w/w) as a coating effervescent layer, showed very good floating capabilities. The percentage of floating placebo pellets was around 80% after 1 h and still above 75% for 23 h. Floating pellet formulations with high drug content, based on the use of tetracycline hydrochloride and theophylline were also evaluated. They showed a comparable floating ability to placebo formulations, combined with sustained release properties thanks to the lipophilic character of the binders used. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation in healthy human volunteers of floating riboflavin minitablets

Pharmacoscintigraphic evaluation of lipid dry powder budesonide formulations for inhalation.

Lung deposition of new formulations of budesonide, using solid lipid microparticles (SLmP) as a pharmaceutically acceptable filler and carrier for inhalation aerosols, and administered from a dry powder inhaler (Cyclohaler), were compared with that from Pulmicort Turbuhaler. Six healthy volunteers took part in a three-way randomized cross-over study, and inhaled a nominal dose of 400 microg budesonide, labelled with 99mTc, on each study day. Lung deposition was determined by gamma scintigraphy and by a pharmacokinetic method. The percentage of dose (SD) in the whole lung was 49.9 (3.7)% for the lipidic matricial form (M) and 62.8 (4.9)% for the lipidic physical blend formulation (PB). These results corresponded well with the in vitro fine particle assessment. In comparison with data recorded in literature for in vivo deposition obtained with Pulmicort Turbuhaler, it was estimated that lung deposition was 1.5 and 2.0 times higher for the M and PB formulations, respectively. Furthermore, the relative drug availability obtained from the pharmacokinetic evaluation, expressed as the percentage of pulmonary absorption of the comparator product, was 154% and 220% for M and PB, respectively. The results of the present study indicate that pulmonary administration using SLmP gives a prominent and significant increase in budesonide lung deposition.

Preparation and in vitro evaluation of lipidic carriers and fillers for inhalation

The present study relates to compositions of solid lipidic microparticles (SLmP), composed of biocompatible phospholipids and cholesterol, and their use as carriers or as fillers delivering drugs directly to the lungs via a dry powder inhaler (DPI). SLmP were obtained by spray-drying and were formulated as lipidic matrices entrapping budesonide or as physical blends (drug carrier). They were developed in order to improve the delivery of the active drug by the pulmonary route. The SLmP were evaluated for their physical characteristics and in vitro deposition measurements were performed using the Multi-stage Liquid Impinger (MsLI). The Pulmicort Turbuhaler® DPI (AstraZeneca) was used as a comparator product. The SLmP appeared to be spherical low-density material characterized by a smooth surface. The mass median diameters (D(0,5)), and the volume mean diameters (D[4,3]) were tiny and ranged from 1,7 to 3,1 μm and from 2,0 to 3,9 μm, respectively. The SLmP formulations, delivered by the Cyclohaler® inhaler, were found to emit a fine particle dose (FPD) of 93-113 μg, which is very promising comparing to the FPD (68 μg) delivered by the Pulmicort Turbuhaler®. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Formulation and characterization of lipid-coated tobramycin particles for dry powder inhalation

Amodiaquine polymeric membrane electrode

The construction and electrochemical response characteristics of two types of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) membrane sensors for the determination of amodiaquine hydrochloride (ADQ.2HCl) are described. The sensing membrane comprised an ion-pair formed between the cationic drug and sodium tetraphenyl borate (NaTPB) or potassium tetrakis(4-chlorophenyl) borate (KTCPB) in a plasticized PVC matrix. Eight PVC membrane ion-selective electrodes were fabricated and studied. Several plasticizers were studied namely, dioctyl phthalate (DOP), 2-nitrophenyl octyl ether (NPOE), dioctyl phenylphosphonate (DOPP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (EHA). The sensors display a fast, stable and near-Nernstian response over a relative wide ADQ concentration range (3.2 x 10(-6) to 2.0 x 10(-2) M), with slopes comprised between 28.5 and 31.4 mV dec(-1) in a pH range comprised between pH 3.7 and 5.5. The assay of amodiaquine hydrochloride in pharmaceutical dosage forms using one of the proposed sensors gave average recoveries of 104.3 and 99.9 with R.S.D. of 0.3 and 0.6% for tablets (Malaritab) and a reconstituted powder containing ADQ.2HCl, respectively. The sensor was also used for dissolution profile studies of two drug formulations. The sensor proved to have a good selectivity for ADQ.2HCl over some inorganic and organic compounds, however, berberine chloride interfered significantly. The results were validated by comparison with a spectrophotometric assay according to the USP pharmacopoeia.

2005

Preparation of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) copolymers and preliminary assessment of their acute and subacute toxicity in mice

A subacute toxicity study was conducted to evaluate the oral toxicity profile of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) derivatives. These thermoresponsive polymers may have several potential pharmaceutical applications such as ingredient for oral solid dosage form. A preliminary acute oral toxicity study was performed with one of the polymer (PNIPAAm-co-NVA) at a unique dose of 4000 mg/kg body weight administered to six male and six female mice, to determine the dosage for further evaluation. No treatment-related effect was observed on behavior and health condition of the experimental animals during the 14 days observational period. The autopsy of the treated animals did not revealed any macroscopic changes in major organ aspects. Based on these preliminary results we selected a 2000 mg/kg body weight/day dose for the 28 days long subacute study. Three polymers were tested, namely PNIPAAm, PNIPAAm-co-NVA and PNIPAAm-co-AAc and compared to a saline control. No significant changes in clinical signs, body weight and food consumption, hematology, clinical chemistry or absolute organ weight were observed. Histological examination of excised major organs showed no marked differences between treated and control mice. In conclusion, PNIPAAm-co-NVA is well tolerated up to 4000 mg/kg body weight when administered orally. In addition, the subacute study indicated the absence of cumulative toxicity and a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of 2000 mg/kg was identified for PNIPAAm and its two copolymers. Further studies are mandatory. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Preparation and characterization of nanocrystals for solubility and dissolution rate enhancement of nifedipine

Poorly water-soluble drugs such as nifedipine (NIF) (∼20 μg/ml) offer challenging problems in drug formulation as poor solubility is generally associated to poor dissolution characteristics and thus to poor oral bioavailability. In order to enhance these characteristics, preparation of nifedipine nanoparticles has been achieved using high pressure homogenization. The homogenization procedure has first been optimized in regard to particle size and size distribution. Nanoparticles were characterized in terms of size, morphology and redispersion characteristics following water-removal. Saturation solubility and dissolution characteristics were investigated and compared to the un-milled commercial NIF to verify the theoretical hypothesis on the benefit of increased surface area. Crystalline state evaluation before and following particle size reduction was also conducted through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) to denote eventual transformation to amorphous state during the homogenization process. Through this study, it has been shown that initial crystalline state is maintained following particle size reduction and that the dissolution characteristics of nifedipine nanoparticles were significantly increased in regards to the commercial product. The method being simple and easily scaled up, this approach should have a general applicability to many poorly water-soluble drug entities. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Évaluation in vitro de la bio-équivalence de quelques formes génériques d'antibactériens

2004

Validation of gentamicin congeners using HPLC with electrochemical detection: Comparison with fluorimetric detection

OPA is often used as an off-line derivatisation agent for fluorimetric detection in gentamicin analysis. As, in general, electrochemical detection is more sensitive than fluorimetric detection, the analysis of gentamicin as its OPA derivatives by high-performance liquid chromatography and electrochemical detection is proposed. The derivatisation procedure is that described by the European pharmacopoeia. The method allows not only the detection of all major gentamicin congeners C1, C1A, C2A and C2, but also of other minor unidentified components. A full validation of the method is presented and comparison is made with fluorimetric detection. A good linearity is found for the four congeners within the dynamic ranges 1-50 μg ml -1 for electrochemical detection and 4-80 μg ml-1 for fluorimetric detection. Both methods presented good accuracy and fidelity, although electrochemical detection is more sensitive than fluorimetric detection. The electrochemical detection method presented in this work appears to be a good alternative to the fluorimetric and pulsed electrochemical detection methods. © 2004 Published by Elsevier SAS on behalf of Académie des Sciences.

Synthesis and characterization of thermosensitive copolymers for oral controlled drug delivery

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) copolymers were synthesized in order to obtain co-polymers with a phase transition temperature slightly higher than the physiological temperature, as required by a new drug delivery concept described in a previous paper. Six hydrophilic comonomers bringing about a rise of the phase transition temperature were evaluated. The synthesized copolymers were characterized and the influence of the type and of the amount of the used comonomer on the phase transition temperature was discussed. Among the comonomers, Acrylamide (AAm), N-methyl-N-vinylacetamide (MVA), N-vinylacetamide (NVA), and N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidinone (VPL) were found to be capable to raise the phase transition temperature to a value slightly higher than 37 °C and to have adequate phase transition behavior. The selected four copolymers were subjected to an additional purification step that should make them fit to use as a controlling agent in drug delivery systems. © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) copolymers for constant temperature controlled drug delivery

In the course of the development of a new drug delivery concept, four thermosensitive copolymers of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm), with phase transition temperature slightly higher than 37°C, were synthesised and used as time-controlled drug delivery agents. For this purpose, compression-coated tablets coated with the thermosensitive copolymers and containing Na 2SO4 were prepared and in vitro dissolution tests were performed at constant physiological temperature, the lag time before drug release being controlled by the amount of Na2SO4 incorporated into the form. Due to the salting out effect, the lag time was increased by up to 80-90% for PNIPAAm-co-NVA and PNIPAAm-co-MVA coated tablets. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

2003

Physical and thermal characterisation of Precirol® and Compritol® as lipophilic glycerides used for the preparation of controlled-release matrix pellets

Physical and thermal properties of Compritol® and Precirol® as potential lipophilic binders in melt pelletisation process for the preparation of sustained-release matrix pellets were evaluated in this study. Experimental measurements were carried out using X-ray diffractometry, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), hot-stage microscopy (HSM) and rheological measurements. These studies have shown that the lipophilic binders may present a relatively complex behaviour depending on the sample treatment (untreated, freshly solidified, aged samples). DSC and HSM methods have shown the presence of polymorphism for Precirol. Moreover, both untreated and fresh solidified Precirol and Compritol samples present partially amorphous layered structure which slowly crystallise in time. The rate of crystallisation was found to be more rapid for Precirol, and highly dependent on the ageing conditions (storage temperature). Finally, the evaluation of the thermal and rheological properties of Precirol and Compritol mixtures have shown that the use of such mixtures, presenting well distinct melting properties, could be a very interesting tool for the preparation of high fatty binder content prolonged-release pellets in high shear mixers if the product temperature is carefully controlled (between 45 and 50°C) during the pelletisation process. © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Surfactant induced drug delivery based on the use of thermosensitive polymers

A novel approach of controlled drug delivery using thermosensitive polymers is developed in this paper. The drug release occurs at physiological temperature, at which the polymer is normally not soluble, and no medium temperature changes are required to bring about the delivery. For this purpose benefit is taken from the specific binding properties of some anionic surfactants and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) in order to modify the dissolution properties of PNIPAAm and of a copolymer with N-vinyl-acetamide (NVA), and so to induce the release of a drug contained in compression coated tablets. The influence of surfactant type and amount on the drug release rates and lag times from tablets coated with PNIPAAm or with the copolymer are discussed. It was found that the lag time is influenced by the surfactant species and amount. When use is made of a copolymer as coating agent, it is possible to bring about the release of the drug by incorporating only a very small amount (as low as 2%) of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) in the coating. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Synthesis and enzymatic degradation of epichlorohydrin cross-linked pectins

2002

Development and evaluation of prolonged release pellets obtained by the melt pelletization process

This study was performed in order to evaluate the possibility of obtaining prolonged release matrix pellets by a melt pelletization process in a laboratory high shear mixer (Mi-Pro, Pro-C-epT). Phenylephrine hydrochloride pellet formulations based on lactose 450 mesh and a mixture of Compritol® 888 and Precirol® ATO 5 as melting binders were evaluated. The fatty binder content of pellets was substantially increased (from 18 to 80% w/w). The effects of jacket temperature, massing time (MT) and impeller speed (IS) on the pellet characteristics were investigated. It was shown that pellets of narrow size distribution can be produced by using an IS of 800 rpm, a chopper speed of 4000 rpm and a MT of 8 min. On the other hand, the applicability of this technique for the production of sustained-release pellets using ciprofloxacin hydrochloride, ketoprofen and theophylline as less water soluble model drugs than phenylephrine hydrochloride was also studied. This study demonstrated that formulations based on an appropriate mixture of Precirol and Compritol can be used to produce in a short time prolonged release pellets for very hydrosoluble drugs like phenylephrine hydrochloride as well as for the other drugs tested. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

In vitro evaluation of epichlorohydrin cross-linked pectins as colon-specific drug delivery carriers

Evaluation of a new controlled-drug delivery concept based on the use of thermoresponsive polymers

The purpose of this work is to develop a new delivery concept making a thermosensitive polymer based on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) useful as a time-controlled drug release device, without any temperature changes of the dissolution medium. It was previously found that some salts induce a decrease of the polymer lower critical solution temperature (LCST). Use is here made of that property to show that salt concentration variations can be used as a substitute for temperature changes to make the polymer coating of compression-coated tablets soluble or insoluble, consequently creating a possible new concept of drug delivery control from delivery systems containing thermoresponsive polymers. The obtained results show the influence of the type and amount of salts incorporated into compression-coated tablets on the release lag time of a model drug. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

2001

Effect of some physiological and non-physiological compounds on the phase transition temperature of thermoresponsive polymers intended for oral controlled-drug delivery

Poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (PNIPAAm) thermosensibility makes this polymer a very attractive candidate for controlled drug delivery systems. The polymer possesses a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) which was found to be around 32°C in pure water, but which can be affected by the medium composition, i.e. presence of salts or surfactants. The knowledge of the effects of such substances on the LCST is very important while using PNIPAAm as a controlled drug delivery agent. The influence of a number of physiological and non-physiological salts and surfactants has been studied. The results obtained show that the addition of salts provokes an important decrease of the LCST of the polymer (salting out effect). A strong influence of the valence and of the size of the anions of the halide group was found. As to the surfactants, according to their type and concentration, a decrease or an increase of the LCST or even no effect at all were found. The effect of the GI secretions on the PNIPAAm phase separation temperature is also discussed. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V.

Nouvelles recherches sur l'intérêt des polymères en formulation galénique.

2000

Studies of pectin HM/Eudragit® RL/Eudragit® NE film-coating formulations intended for colonic drug delivery

Theophylline pellets were coated with Eudragit® NE30D aqueous dispersions, containing various pectin HM/Eudragit® RL30D ionic complexes, using an Uni-Glatt fluidized-bed apparatus. Dissolution studies were then carried out on the coated pellets at pH 6.0, in absence and in presence of commercial pectinolytic enzymes. The theophylline release from the coated pellets, after an initial latency phase, occurred linearly as a function of time. The theophylline release rate was dependent on the pectin HM content of the complexes incorporated in the coatings. The lowest theophylline release from the coated pellets was obtained when the pectin HM content of the complexes was 20.0% w/w (related to Eudragit® RL), i.e. when the complexation between pectin HM and Eudragit® RL is optimal. The theophylline release from the coated pellets was slower in presence of the pectinolytic enzymes when the pectin content of complexes is higher than 20% w/w. On the other hand, the effect of the enzymes induced an increase of the theophylline release when the pectin HM content of the coatings ranged between 10.0 and 15.0% w/w (related to Eudragit® RL). (C) 2000 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Effect of pectinolytic enzymes on the release of theophylline from pellets coated with water insoluble polymers containing pectin HM or calcium pectinate

Theophylline pellets were coated with cellulosic (Aquacoat® ECD 30, Surelease® clear) or acrylic (Eudragit® NE30D, RS30D) polymer aqueous dispersions, containing 10% (related to the insoluble polymer content) of pectin HM or calcium pectinate, using a Uni-Glatt fluidized-bed coating apparatus. When commercial pectinolytic enzymes were added to the dissolution media (0.05 M acetate - phosphate buffer, pH 6.0), the release of theophylline from the coated pellets was generally slower than that observed in the media without enzymes. The enzymatic slowing down of the drug release, depending on the type of the aqueous polymer dispersion used, is more important with mixed Eudragit® NE/calcium pectinate coated pellets. The results obtained have been examined with regard to the validity of the approach based on the combination of pectins and the insoluble polymer aqueous dispersions intended for specific-delivery of drugs to the colon. The mechanism of the hydrophilic drug release from pellets coated with insoluble polymer aqueous dispersions containing an aqueous gel-forming polymer has been also discussed. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V.

1999

In vitro evaluation of pectin HM/ethylcellulose compression-coated formulations intended for colonic drug delivery

Influence of melting and rheological properties of fatty binders on the melt granulation process in a high-shear mixer

1998

Leaching of pectin from mixed pectin/insoluble polymer films intended for colonic drug delivery

Investigations intended to combine pectin HM or calcium pectinates with commercially available aqueous polymer dispersions for colon-specific drug delivery have been conducted on isolated films. The mixed films were prepared from Aquacoat(®) ECD 30, Surelease(®) clear, Eudragit(®) RS30D or Eudragit(®) NE30D containing 5, 10 or 15% w/w (related to insoluble polymer content) of pectin HM or 10% w/w of calcium pectinates. The kinetics of pectin leaching from the mixed films, incubated in 0.05 M acetate-phosphate buffer (pH 4.5, 37°C) in the absence of pectinolytic enzymes, showed that pectin HM or calcium pectinates were quickly released from the different films except from the mixed pectin/Eudragit(®) RS films. Moreover, in these cases, the leaching of pectin from Eudragit(®) RS films containing up to 10% w/w (related to Eudragit(®) RS polymer content) of pectin HM or pectin LM, was significantly faster in the presence of enzymes than in absence. These results indicate that the associations of pectin HM or LM and Eudragit RS are likely to give more suitable coating materials for colon-specific drug delivery than the other combinations. Copyright (C) 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.

Peroral sustained-release film-coated pellets as a means to overcome physicochemical and biological drug-related problems. I. In vitro development and evaluation

Peroral sustained-release film-coated pellets as a means to overcome physicochemical and biological drug-related problems. II. Bioavailability and tolerance assessment in dogs

Etat nutritionnel et admininistration des formes à libération programmée

1997

Influence of curing conditions on the drug release rate from EudragitNESOD film coated sustained-release theophylline pellets

1996

Influence of plasticizer concentration and storage conditions on the drug release rate from Eudragit® RS30D film-coated sustained-release theophylline pellets

1995

Preparation of controlled-release coevaporates of dipyridamole by loading neutral pellets in a fluidized-bed coating system

Evaluation of thermal and film forming properties of acrylic aqueous polymer dispersion blends: Application to the formulation of sustained-release film coated theophylline pellets